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GEOLOGICAL  AND  NATURAL  HISTORY  SURVEY  OF  MINNESOTA. 
N.  H.  WINCHELL,  State  Geologist. 


BULLETIN  No.  7. 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA. 


A  SCIENTIFIC  AND  POPULAR  ACCOUNT  OF  THEIR 
FEATURES  AND  HABITS, 


23    FIGURES    AND    8    PLATES, 


BY  C.  L.  HERRI CK. 


MINNEAPOLIS: 
HARRISON  &  SMITH,  STATE  PRINTERS, 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Preface 7 

List  of  Illustrations '. 

Introduction V. 

CHAPTER  I  —  YERTEBRATA— MAMMALIA 13-18 

SUBCLASS  MONODELPHIA 17 

CHAPTER  II —ORDER  CfiLIROPTERA  (BATS) 19-37 

General  account  of  the  order 19 

Synopsis  of  important  families  and  genera 24 

Geographical  distribution 25 

Genus  Nycticejus 27 

Genus  Lasiurus 28 

Genus  Scotophilus 33 

Genus  Lasionycteris 34 

Genus  Vespertilio 36 

CHAPTER  III.— ORDER  OSECTIVORA  (MOLES  AND 

SHREWS) 38-56 

General  account  and  geographical  distribution  ...  38 

Family  Soricidae 43 

Genus  Blarina 44 

Sorex  cooperi .•  48 

Family  Talpidas 49 

Genus  Scalops 51 


4  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. — ORDER  CARNIYORA  (FLESH  EATERS)57-150 

General  account 57 

Suborder  ^Eluroidea 60 

Family  Felidas 63 

Genus  Felis 64 

Genus  Lynx 72 

Family  Canidse 74 

Genus  Canis 77 

Genus  Vulpes 80 

Genus  Urocyon 81 

Family  Mustelidse 83 

Genus  Taxidea  (Badger) 86 

Genus  Mephitis 87 

Genus  Gulo 99 

Genus  Mustela 102 

Genus  Putorius 106 

Subfamily  Lutrinse  (Otters) 128 

Family  Ursidse 135 

Genus  Procyon  (Raccoons) 138 

Genus  Ursus  (Bears) 145 

CHAPTER  V.— ORDER  RODENTIA  (GNAWERS).  ...151-253 

General  account 151 

Family  Sciuridse 154 

Genus  Sciurus .  155 

Genus  Tamias 159 

Genus  Spermophilus 163 

Genus  Arctomys 168 

Family  Castoridre 169 

Genus  Castor 170 

Family  Muridae 174 

Genus  Vesperimus 176 

Genus  Hypudseus 193 

Genus  Arvicola 197 

Genus  Synaptomys 207 

Genus  Onychomys 208 

Genus  Fiber. .  211 


CONTENTS.  5 

Family  Dipodidse 217 

Genus  Zapus 218 

Family  Geomyidse 220 

Genus  Geomys 222 

Family  Leporidae  (Hares) 230 

Family  Hystricidse  (Porcupines) 243 

Genus  Erethizon 246 

Distribution  of  Rodentia 252 

CHAPTER  VI.— ORDER  ARTIODACTYLA  (HOOPED 

QUADRUPEDS) 254-290 

General  account 254 

Family  Bovidse— Genus  Bison 258 

Family  Cervidse 270 

Alces  americanus 270 

Rangifer  tarandus 274 

Cervus  canadensis 278 

•  Cervus  (Cariacus)  virginianus 281 

Antilocapra  americana 282 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Geomys  bursarius  (p.  223 ) .  . .    Frontispiece 

Plate  I.  Antilocapra  americana,  Pronghorn  antelope .  . .  282 

Plate  II.  Felis  concolor,  Puma 66 

Plate  III.  Taxidea  americana,  Badger 86 

Plate  IV.  Bison  americanus,  American  bison 260 

Plate  V.  Alces  americanus,  Moose  deer 270 

Plate  VI.  Cervus  canadensis,  American  elk 278 

Plate  VII.  Erethizon  dorsatus,  Canada  porcupine 246 


LIST  OF  FIGURES. 


•  Page 

Pig.  1.     Heads  of  various  bats 21 

Fig.  2.     Macroscelides  typicus,  Jumping  shrew  from  Africa     38 

Fig.  3.     Blarina  brevicaudata,  Short-tailed  shrew 45 

Fig.  4.     Scalops  aquaticus,  Mole 51 

Fig.  5  and  6.     Upper  surface  of  hand  and  snout  of  Scalops 

aquaticus 52 

Fig.  7.     Group  of  Mustelidae 83 

Fig.  8.     Putorius  vulgaris  and  Putorius  erminea,  Common 

and  Ermine  weasels 107 

Fig.  9.     Group  of  Subursinae 138 

Fig.  10.     The  Raccoon  at  Bay 140 

Fig.  11.     The  Raccoon  at  Dinner 141 

Fig.  12.     Section  of  Muskrat  hut 214 

Fig.  13.     Muskrat  houses 215 

Figs.  14,  15  and  16.     Sketches  of  Geomys  bursarius,  com- 
mon pocket  gopher,  showing  different  attitudes. . .  .  223-227 

Fig.  17.     Bones  of  Lepus  campestris,  Prairie  hare 235 

Fig.  18.     Sphingurus  villosus,  South  American  porcupine.  243 

Fig.  19.     Bison  europeus,  European  bison 259 

Fig.  20.     Head  of  unusually  large  caribou 275 

Fig.  21.     European  reindeer 277 

Fig.  22.     Indian  sketch  of  running  antelope 290 

Fig.  23.     Burial  post  of  Waubojeeg 290 


CORRIGENDA. 


Page  17,  ninth  line  from  bottom,  for  "Monotremata"  read  Mono- 
delphia. 

Page  18,  seventh  line,  for  "Monotremata"  read  Monodelphia. 

Page  48,  preceding  Sorex  cooperi,  insert 
GENUS  SOREX. 

Smallest  mammals  with  soft  and  short  pelag'e.  Both  feet  with  five 
digits.  Teeth  free.  Body  mouse-like,  with  elongated  head  and  pro- 
jecting snout,  closely  appresed  valve-like  ears  concealed  beneath 
the  fur,  and  cylindrical  or  four-angled  tail  (covered  with  annular 
scales  and  hairs),  which  is  longer  than  the  body.  Soles  naked. 
Claws  not  retractile.  Special  glands  near  the  fore  legs.  Eyes  small. 
Dentary  formula :  I.f,  C.  A;.|,  P.  M.  |;5,  M.  |-|,  =  32.  The  incisors  have 
toothed  edges  and  an  accessory  basal  hook.  All  the  teeth  are  white 
with  brownish  tips. 

Page  48,  sixth  line  from  the  bottom,  insert 

Color,  above  grayish  brown;  entire  under  parts  including  tail  sil- 
very. Easily  distinguished  from  other  Minnesota  species  by  the 
size  and  length  of  tail. 

Page  78,  sixteenth  line,  dele  "  Pl,ATE  VI." 

Page  102,  nineteenth  line,  for  "Putoris"  read  Putorius. 

Page  108,  under  Ermine  or  White  Weasel,  for  "Plate  XV"  read 
Fig.  8  A,  p.  107. 

Page  158,  under  Fox  Squirrel,  dele  "Plate  VIII,"  and  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page  the  note  referring  to  the  same. 

Page  159,  under  Sciuropterus  volucella,  dele  "Plate  VII." 

Page  162,  under  Rocky  Mountain  Chipmunk,  dele  "Plate  IX." 

Page  223,  after  COMMON  POCKET  GOPHER,  insert 

Fron  tispiece. 


NOTE. — As  originally  prepared  it  was  intended  that  the  following 
work  should  be  illustrated  by  a  number  of  other  plates,  the  greater 
part  of  them  colored  lithographs.  On  account  of  the  cost  of  such 
plates  many  of  them  were  rejected  at  once,  and  more  recently  again 
the  Printing  Commission  decided  to  publish,  with  the  exception  of 
Geomys  bursarius,  only  those  which  were  suitable  for  reproduc- 
tion by  the  photo-engraving  and  half-tone  processes.  Unfortu- 
nately the  proof-reader  failed  to  notice,  until  over  half  the  pages  had 
been  printed,  that  the  corresponding  changes  had  not  been  made  in 
the  manuscript  by 'erasing  the  references  to  omitted  plates,  and  to 
this  oversight  is  due  the  irregular  numbering  of  the  plates  and  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  descriptions  call  for  plates  that  are  not  in- 
cluded. N.  H.  W. 


PREFACE. 


The  manuscript  and  plates  for  a  final  report  upon  the  mam- 
mals of  Minnesota  were  turned  over  to  the  Survey  in  1885,  with 
the  expectation  that  the  work  would  be  speedily  issued  as  part 
of  a  quarto  volume  of  the  series  of  final  reports.  Circum- 
stances with  which  the  writer  is  unacquainted  have  delayed  the 
publication  over  six  years  and  in  the  meantime  much  work  has 
been  done  in  all  branches  of  biology,  and  the  state  has  been 
carefully  surveyed  by  the  United  States  agents.  Much  of 
whatever  may  have  had  any  value  as  an  original  contribution 
to  science  has  lapsed  and  much  of  the  remainder  has  been 
rendered  unnecessary  by  recent  publication.  This  is  especially 
true  of  bibliographical  material.  When,  however,  the  publica- 
tion was  finally  ordered  and  no  opportunity  was  afforded  for 
further  field  work,  it  seemed  best  to  adapt  the  manuscript  for 
the  purpose  by  the  omission  of  much  which  could  not  be  edited 
satisfactorily  under  the  circumstances,  and,  separating  the 
more  general  from  the  technical  portions,  to  issue  these  in  the 
form  of  two  bulletins,  uniform  with  the  series  already  estab- 
lished by  the  Survey. 

The  present  installment,  therefore,  contains  the  descriptive 
and  popular  portion,  with  such  illustrations  as  may  serve  to 
assist  the  amateur.  The  second  part  will  be  devoted  to  the 
materials  collected  upon  the  anatomy,  especially  the  myology 
and  osteology  of  the  mammals  of  Minnesota. 

July,  1891.  C.  L.   HERRICK, 

Univ.  of  Cincinnati. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  present  volume  is  intended  to  serve  a  double  purpose. 
The  comprehensive  nature  of  the  law  authorizing  the  Natural 
History  Survey  of  the  state  might  lead  the  reader  to  expect 
much  more  than  the  limited  time  and  means  at  our  disposal 
made  possible.  This  report,  therefore,  while  putting  in  per- 
manent form  such  data  as  came  to  hand  during  the  few  months 
occupied  in  its  preparation,  will  best  serve  its  purpose  if  it  in- 
dicates in  a  general  way  the  kind  of  observations  and  records, 
the  nature  of  the  problems  and  the  method  of  investigation 
desirable  for  the  future  work  in  this  department  within  the 
state.  The  greatest  barrier  in  the  way  of  the  preparation  of 
this  report  was  the  almost  absolute  absence  of  anything  like 
scientific  interest  in  zoology  in  the  state.  There  were  no  re- 
liable data  available,  nor  were  there  persons  prepared  to  collect 
such  data  intelligently.  It  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  that  a 
permanent  bureau  has  been  established  in  connection  with  the 
University  for  the  prosecution  of  such  studies  as  naturally  fall 
to  the  lot  of  a  Natural  History  Survey,  and  the  general  dissemi- 
nation of  the  scientific  spirit  and  attainments  may  yet  make  it 
possible  to  preserve  the  records  of  the  natural  biological 
phenomena  of  Minnesota,  now  rapidly  being  obliterated  by 
the  changed  conditions  accompanying  the  encroachments  of 
civilization. 

As  a  compensation  for  this  loss,  however,  a  not  less  inter- 
esting set  of  problems  growing  out  of  the  adjustment  of  the 
native  population  to  the  incoming  one  presents  itself,  and  these 
questions  have  a  theoretical  as  well  as  practical  significance 
difficult  to  over-estimate. 

Of  course  the  collection  and  description  of  all  the  species  of 
mammalia  still  existing  in  the  state  is  an  obvious  duty  in  con- 
nection with  the  preparation  of  such  a  report.  The  omissions 
and  errors  which  of  necessity  exist  in  the  present  essay  will 
soon  doubtless  be  made  good  by  the  activity  of  the  Mammalian 
Branch  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  U.  S.  A.,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam. 

s 

-2 


10  .  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Any  clear  understanding  of  the  present  fauna  implies  a  study 
of  the  record  of  its  development  as  supplied  by  paleontology. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  learn  what  influences  have  acted  to  cause 
the  extinction  of  some  animals,  to  change  the  habitats  of  oth- 
ers, and  to  modify  the  form  and  habits  of  still  others.  An 
obvious  duty  is  the  study  of  the  habits  of  our  mammals,  such 
especially  as  relate  to  the  food  and  economic  relations.  Some 
animals  rank  among  the  most  important  enemies  of  the  farmer 
and  poultryman,  while  others  are  either  indifferent  or  are 
worthy  of  preservation  for  the  contributions  they  make  to  the 
resources  of  parts  of  the  state.  There  are  regions  which  nature 
seems  to  have  designed  as  natural  game  preserves  and  suitable 
legislation  might  long  continue  to  us  the  opportunity  for  health- 
ful sport,  and  pleasant  variety  in  the  food  supply.  The  facts 
relating  to  the  fur  trade  are  also  legitimate  to  this  work  and 
some  account  of  the  methods  pursued  in  collecting  the  furs,  so 
necessary  an  adjunct  to  winter  clothing,  would  certainly  not  be 
out  of  place.  If  any  incidents  could  be  intermingled  which 
would  either  reflect  light  on  the  habits  or  excite  popular  inter- 
est in  a  neglected  branch  of  science  these  certainly  are  admis- 
sible. A  scientific  study  of  our  mammals  would  involve  much 
more  than  this.  Aside  from  intricate  questions  which  arise  as 
to  the  actual  limits  of  species  and  relative  value  of  varietal 
characters  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  each  mammal  fur- 
nishes a  field  for  exhaustive  study.  An  adequate  knowledge  of 
the  relationships  existing  between  the  various  living  as  well  as 
fossil  animals,  must  be  founded  upon  an  intimate  familiarity 
with  the  points  of  similarity  and  dissimilarity  in  their  internal 
structure.  The  complete  study  of  the  anatomy  of  a  single  ani- 
mal is  the  work  of  years,  so  that  here  is  a  field  which  one  per- 
son would  scarcely  hope  to  cursorily  examine,  much  less  to 
exhaust. 

In  a  state  as  large  as  Minnesota  there  are  abundant  oppor 
tunities  for  the  study  of  the  influence  of  environment  upon  the 
anatomical  and  physiological  peculiarities  of  the  fauna.  Prob- 
ably no  other  state  in  the  Union  is  so  favorably  situated  for 
this  study.  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state  is  an  area 
with  an  annual  rainfall  almost  as  large  as  anywhere  in  the 
Union.  The  western  portion  borders  upon  the  great  prairie 
region  of  the  interior.  The  northern  portion  of  the  state  con- 
tains a  large  invasion  of  the  boreal  fauna,  while  the  southern 
receives  waifs  from  the  south-central  states.  Moreover,  the 
distribution  of  forest  and  plain  is  such  as  to  introduce  diversity 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  11 

of  station  within  those  habitats.  Although  there  are  no  alpine 
or  strictly  mountainous  regions  in  the  state  the  diversity  of 
surface  and  soil  is  considerable.  The  vast  number  of  glacial 
pools  carries  the  habitat  of  the  musk  rat  far  into  the  prairie  belt. 
The  prevalence  of  coniferous  trees  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  exerts  a  very  pronounced  influence  upon  its  fauna.  The 
opportunity  to  study  the  gradual  changes  in  the  same  species 
as  it  crosses  the  imperceptible  but  most  real  boundary  separat- 
ing these  several  habitats  is  of  the  greatest  value  for  a  compre- 
hension of  the  bearing  of  evolution  and  the  proper  definition  of 
a  "species." 

Another  field  for  investigation  is  not  less  interesting  than  the 
above  mentioned.  The  language  of  a  people,  and  especially  of 
a  rude  people,  is  influenced  to  a  high  degree  by  the  external 
objects  which  furnish  the  mind  with  the  earliest  conceptions 
and  the  tongue  with  the  first-framed  words.  Animated  nature, 
and  especially  those  animals  whose  large  size  and  close  rela- 
tions with  the  individual  naturally  excite  interest,  have  a  large 
share  of  influence.  The  psychologist  is  interested  to  know 
what  phases  of  animal-life  have  made  the  most  vivid  impress- 
ion upon  different  tribes  and  to  thus  read  the  temperament  and 
mental  endowment  of  aboriginal  people  in  their  language. 
The  philologist  studies  with  no  less  interest,  although  from  a 
different  stand-point,  the  effect  of  animals  upon  the  various 
languages.  If  the  prominent  beasts  of  prey  have  identical  or 
similar  names  in  distant  tribes,  he  seeks  to  discover  whether 
consanguinity  or  previous  accidental  propinquity  was  the 
occasion. 

Archaeology  has  by  similar  means  succeeded  in  forming  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  domestic  life  of  early  European  times, 
while  in  this  country  little  attention  has  as  yet  been  directed  to 
the  subject. 

The  effects  of  external  objects  upon  the  human  mind  are  seen 
in  pictorial  representations  almost  as  soon  as  in  vocal  imitations 
of  properties  possessed  by  them  or  verbal  signs  for  them.  The 
picture  writing  of  the  savage  is  most  highly  interesting  not 
only  as  furnishing  information  regarding  his  own  method  of 
life  but  of  the  previous  range  of  extinct  animals  or  such  as 
have  since  migrated.  In  this  way  the  contemporaneous  exist- 
ence of  man  and  the  mammoth  has  been  proven  in  Europe,  and 
genuine  and  well  authenticated  aboriginal  carvings  should  be 
carefully  collected  and  studied,  as  well  by  the  biologist  as  the 
archaeologist.  Among  the  ancients  various  animal  as  well  as 


12  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

human  figures  were  used  in  art  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
is  considered  permissible  at  the  present  time.  While  the  em- 
ployment of  animal  figures  for  decorative  and  architectural 
purposes  must  be  under  the  constant  and  rigid  surveillance  of 
a  sensitive  and  cultivated  taste,  it  is  yet  true  that  the  tasteful 
employment  of  such  forms  would  enhance  the  power  and  widen 
the  field  of  decorative  art  among  us  many  fold.  The  legitimate 
employment  of  fancy  in  combining  native,  animal  and  vege- 
table forms  in  designs  suited  to  external  and  internal  decora- 
tion would  do  much  to  produce  that  novelty  and  variety  which 
at  present  is  achieved  at  the  expense  of  all  ideas  of  suitability, 
by  patching  together  fragments  of  designs  from  every  clime 
and  age. 

Such  was  the  field  as  it  outlined  itself  before  the  writer  up- 
on assuming  the  responsibility  of  preparing  a  final  report  on 
the  mammals  of  Minnesota.  About  six  months  having  been 
abstracted  from  the  twenty-four  allotted  for  the  work,  it  was 
necessary,  not  only  to  omit  many  of  the  departments  which  at 
first  were  contemplated,  but  to  restrict  others  to  the  briefest 
possible  time.  It  was  obvious  from  the  first  that  little  or  noth- 
ing could  be  added  to  the  systematic  part  of  the  subject,  which 
has  had  elaborate  attention  at  the  hands  of  specialists,  who 
have  access  to  the  vast  collections  secured  by  the  government. 
Few  contributions  relating  to  the  habits  of  North  American 
mammals  could  be  expected  which  would  not  be  already  fore- 
stalled from  the  life-long  experience  of  field  naturalists  like 
Audubon  and  Richardson.  Even  the  collection  of  synonomy 
is  impossible  apart  from  the  libraries  of  the  east.  A  fruitful 
field  seemed  open  in  the  careful  study  and  painstaking  descrip- 
tion of  the  anatomy  of  our  animals,  especially  such  points  as 
might  be  of  permanent  service  to  the  paleontologist.  It  was 
therefore  resolved  to  present  as  complete  an  account  of  the 
osteology  of  our  mammals  as  time  and  opportunities  would  per- 
mit, and  such  other  anatomical  data  as  could  readily  be  gather- 
ed at  the  same  time.  Circumstances,  above  alluded  to,  leave 
even  this  task  unfinished  and  the  osteological  notes  must  be  re- 
garded as  fragmentary  material,  preparatory  to  a  comprehen- 
sive osteology  of  American  mammals. 

Such  popular  material  as  circumstances  have  afforded  is  add- 
ed, the  descriptive  matter  being,  so  far  as  possible,  original, 
although  supplemented  by  whatever  seemed  desirable  in  works 
of  previous  writers. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  13 


CHAPTER  I. 


The  first  question  which  we  encounter  is  "What  is  a  mam- 
mal?" Every  one  is  practically  familiar  with  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  mammals,  and  is  possessed  of  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct notion  of  the  points  of  similarity  and  diversity  between 
such  of  these  animals  as  are  most  familiar,  but  it  may  be  sus- 
pected that  such  of  my  readers  as  are  not  themselves  natural- 
ists may  not  be  prepared  to  state  the  distinctions  which  sepa- 
rate mammals  from  all  other  animals.  It  is  remarkable  how 
few  ideas  are  united  in  the  popular  conception  represented  for 
example  by  the  words  cow,  dog,  cat,  etc.  We  may  perhaps  think 
of  a  cow  as  an  ungainly  quadruped  with  hoofs  and  horns,  which 
occupies  herself  in  chewing  a  cud  and  brewing  milk.  One 
familiar  with  country  life  will  be  likely  to  add  that  the  hoofs 
of  a  cow  are  divided  and  the  horns  are  furnished  with  a  core 
of  bone  and  not,  like  those  of  an  elk,  solid  and  deciduous  and, 
perhaps,  that  there  are  certain  peculiarities  in  the  dentition. 
A  keen  observer  would  recall  that  there  are  really  four  hoofs 
which  represent  four  toes  on  each  foot,  that  the  stomach  is 
curiously  differentiated  and  thus  exhaust  what  are  popularly 
considered  the  distinctive  features  of  a  bovine.  So  able  a 
writer  as  John  Fiske  speaks  of  a  "hoof  as  made  up  «of  five 
claws  grown  together  and  furnished  with  a  nail  in  common. " 
(The  Destiny  of  Man,  p.  36).  Yet  few  would  ever  have  thought 
to  inquire  which  of  all  these  points  does  a  cow  have  in  common 
with  a  mouse,  a  kangaroo  or  an  elephant,  which  animals  are  as 
truly  mammals  as  the  cow  or  her  master. 

The  mammals  are  members  of  the  sub-kingdom  Vertebrata 
among  the  prominent  characters  of  which  are  the  following: 
The  body  is  composed  of  two  cavities  of  unequal  size,  the 
uppermost  of  which  contains  the  central  part  of  the  nervous 
system,  or,  in  other  words  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  while  the 
lower  cavity  contains  the  viscera.  The  nervous  cavity  is  separ- 
ated from  the  visceral  by  a  chain  of  bones  which  usually  also 
sends  up  bony  walls  which  completely  enclose  the  organs 
contained  in  it.  The  anterior  portion  of  the  nervous  system  or 
brain  is  usually  highly  developed  and  encased  in  a  complicated 


14  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

box,  known  as  the  skull.  Through  openings  in  the  skull  the 
nerves  passing  from  the  brain  to  the  organs  of  sense  emerge. 
When  the  spinal  column  is  ossified,  it  is  divided  into  distinct 
elements  or  vertebrae.  The  vertebral  column  is  the  central 
support  as  well  as  the  axis  of  the  body.  Nearly  all  paired  or- 
gans are  symmetrically  arranged  on  either  side  of  it.  The 
bones  which  constitute  the  framework  of  the  body  and  limbs 
are  directly  or  indirectly  attached  to  it.  Of  external  movable 
limbs  used  in  locomotion  there  are  never  more  than  four  which 
although  variable  in  position  and  function  may  always  be  recog- 
nized as  a  posterior  and  anterior  pair.  The  heart  is  ventral, 
that  is,  on  the  same  side  of  the  vertebrae  as  the  alimentary  sys- 
tem. 

Vertebrates  are  of  five  distinct  sorts  which  constitute  the 
classes  Pisces  (fishes),  Amphibia  (frogs  and  salamanders), 
Reptilia  (reptiles),  Aves  (birds),  and  Mammalia  (mammals). 
Of  these  five  groups  the  first  two  and  the  second  two  are  more 
naturally  allied  with  each  other  than  with  any  of  the  other 
classes.  This  more  intimate  relationship  is  indicated  by  uniting 
fishes  and  batrachians  under  the  common  term  Icthyopsida  and 
the  reptiles  and  birds  under  the  name  Sauropsida.  ( The  terms 
BrancMata  and  Monocondyla  are  of  the  same  extension  as  the 
above,  but  less  convenient.  In  order  to  preserve  uniformity  in 
the  number  of  sub-divisions,  Mammals  are  sometimes  given  as 
the  only  class  under  the  province  Zygencephala  co-ordinate 
with  the  above.)  As  distinguished  from  these  groups,  Mam- 
mals possess  the  following  pecularities: 

The  female  has  mammae  or  glands  which  secrete  a  milky  fluid 
to  sustain  the  young,  which,  after  birth,  pass  through  a  long 
period  of  comparative  helplessness.  The  two  halves  of  the 
anterior  part  of  the  brain  (cerebrum )  are  connected  by  a  cor- 
pus callosum.  There  are  two  condyles  or  articulating  surfaces 
at  the  back  of  the  skull.  The  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  a  single 
bone  on  each  side  and  the  ear  contains  the  malleus  and  incus. 
The  heart  has  four  chambers  and  a  single  aortic  arch.  The 
diaphragm  is  perfect  and  the  lungs  are  freely  suspended  in  the 
thoracic  cavity  thus  formed. 

The  ribs  join  the  sternum.  There  are  no  gills  at  any  time  in 
life.  -Blood  is  warm  and  the  red  corpuscles  unnucleated.  The 
body  is  covered  more  or  less  completely  with  hair. 

The  scientific  definition  of  a  mammal  would  comprise  the 
points  above  mentioned  and  others  of  similar  nature,  but  prac- 
tically the  notion  which  springs  unbidden  in  our  minds  when  the 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  15 

word  mammal  is  heard  is  derived,  not  from  such  a  rigid  analysis 
as  is  necessary  to  formulate  a  scientific  definition,  but  from  men- 
tal images  of  various  mammals  and  these  concrete  images  com- 
monly are  more  or  less  clearly  or  vaguely  implied  even  in  the  ab- 
stract notion  mammal.  Such  abstractions  are  only  in  so  far  valu- 
able as  they  serve  as  keys  to  admit  us  with  promptitude  to  that 
chamber  of  our  memory  where  are  stored  the  various  concrete 
images  which  experience  has  gathered  and  which  may  be  com- 
pared with  each  other  and  thus  produce  an  indefinite  series  of 
abstract  notions,  varying  in  extension  without  altering  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  concrete  things  in  the  least.  A 
classification  is  in  fact  nothing  but  just  such  a  series  of  gen- 
eral notions  and  is,  therefore,  capable  of  being  extended  to  any 
number  of  terms,  not  greater  thani  the  number  of  the  individu- 
als classified  which  are  not  positively  identical.  The  person, 
then,  who  desires  to  become  conversant  with  zoology,  or  any 
other  branch  of  natural  history,  must  strive  to  gather  as  great  a 
number  of  clear  individual  images  of  as  great  a  variety  of  ob- 
jects as  his  mental  classification  will  enable  him  to  retain 
without  confusion. 

It  will  be  our  aim  then  to  present  a  verbal  and  pictorial  image 
of  all  the  mammals  in  our  state,  hoping  to  thus  impart  more 
real  information  than  would  be  derived  from  lengthy  and  per- 
chance learned  discussions  of  the  principles  of  classification  or 
theories  of  derivation  or  development. 

The  following  statistics  will  briefly  summarize  the  mammal- 
ian population  of  our  state: 

1.  Number  of  species  known  to  exist 63 

2.  Species  rapidly  approaching  extinction , 8 

3.  Species  increasing  in  abundance 6 

4.  Species  of  economic  value 21 

5.  Species  which  may  be  regarded  as  injurious 24 

6.  Species  having  northern  or  sub-arctic  affinity 6 

7.  Species  having  a  western  affinity , 8 

8.  Species  belonging  to  the  eastern  province 25 

9.  Species  of  general  distribution  in  North  America 24 

Of  course  in  a  relative  matter  of  this  sort  opinion  would  vary 
as  to  the  inclusiveness  of  one  or  other  of  the  categories;  the 
above  table  will  merely  indicate  the  approximate  state  of  the 
fauna. 

Among  mammals  either  actually  extinct  in  our  limits  or  like- 
ly to  be  so  may  be  mentioned  the  buffalo,  prong-horn,  beaver, 
wolverine,  elk,  caribou,  gray  gopher,  and  panther.  The  in- 
troduced species  of  mice  and  rats  are  on  the  constant  increase, 


16  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

supplanting  in  many  cases  native  species.  Instances  of  mam- 
mals of  economic  importance  either  on  account  of  the  value  of 
the  pelt  or  the  food  furnished  by  the  flesh  will  readily  suggest 
themselves.  The  fur  trade  in  this  state  seems  to  have  dimin- 
ished in  importance,  so  that  statistics  of  its  income  would  have 
little  value,  at  any  rate  it  was  impossible  to  gather  any  informa- 
tion sufficiently  reliable  to  be  worth  reporting.  A  few  Indians 
devote  their  time  to  trapping,  but  aside  from  this,  the  farmer's 
boy  who  hopes  to  add  to  a  limited  stock  of  spending  money,  by 
the  capture  of  mink  or  musk-rat,  is  almost  the  only  patron  of 
the  industry. 

The  capture  of  deer  is  still  quite  an  industry,  and  yet  the 
supply  does  not  seem  to  diminish  greatly.  Only  a  few  years 
ago,  patient  sportsmen  succeeded  in  securing  a  deer  or  two 
within  a  dozen  miles  of  Minneapolis  every  winter. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  trace,  so  far  as  possible,  the  origin 
of  domestic  animals  in  this  connection.  The  space  at  our  dis- 
posal prohibits  more  than  a  cursory  word.  For  additional  de- 
tails one  may  refer  to  the  works  of  Oscar  Smith,  Rutemyer  and 
Vogt. 

Darwin  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  domestic  dog  is  a  result 
of  the  domestication  and  interbreeding  of  several  feral  species. 

Jeitteles  believes  that  the  jackal  and  Indian  wolf  (Ganis 
pallipes)  have  been  the  progenitors  of  the  various  races  of  do- 
mestic dogs.  From  the  former  he  derives  terriers  and  turn- 
spits, while  from  the  latter  he  traces  the  poodle,  cur,  and  bull- 
dog. The  Egyptian  dog  is  believed  to  have  had  a  separate 
origin  from  the  large  jackal  ( Canis  lupaster) . 

The  fossil  ancestors  of  the  wolf  may  be  found  in  the  Dilu- 
vium, over  half  a  dozen  species  very  much  like  the  modern 
animal  being  known.  There  are  a  number  of  wild  dogs  with  a 
greater  number  of  molar  teeth  than  our  familiar  species,  and 
these  are  thought  to  be  the  more  direct  descendants  of  the 
primitive  canine.  Of  the  relations  of  the  dogs  to  the  cats 
enough  information  is  furnished  by  paleontology  to  show  that 
the  petty  jealousy  still  existing  is  as  might  be  supposed  a  result 
of  consanguinity  unwillingly  recognized. 

Among  the  ruminants  it  is  interesting  to  recall  that  America 
is  the  primitive  home  of  the  camel  tribe.  In  the  Pliocene  Ter- 
tiary camels  were  perhaps  the  most  abundant  of  the  larger 
mammals  with  the  exception  of  horses,  while  the  alpaca  and 
llama  alone  survive  to  the  present. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  17 

The  ox  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  three  ancient  species 
(Bos  brachyceros,  B.  primigenius,  B.  frontosus)  which  have  since 
been  crossed  interminably.  While  the  ox  seems  to  have  ap- 
peared in  the  eastern  continent,  America  may  claim  to  have 
been  the  birth  place  of  the  bison  whose  enormous  herds  were 
once  so  characteristic  a  feature  of  our  country.  Bison  latifrons 
from  the  diluvium  is  the  first  form  known.  Allen  believes  that 
from  this  species  have  sprung  B.  antiquus  in  America  and  B. 
prisons  in  the  old  world,  the  precursors  of  the  living  species 
in  each. 

One  group  of  mammals — the  Cetacea — have  left  no  trace  in 
the  formation  of  Minnesota.  Our  knowledge  of  the  whale  is  a 
very  recent  acquisition  and  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  careful 
researches  of  Eschricht,  Brandt,  Van  Beneden,  Gervais  and 
Flower.  Whalebone  had  long  been  an  article  of  commerce 
before  the  relation  it  sustained  to  the  teeth  of  other  mammals 
was  made  out — that  it  is,  indeed,  a  thickened  appendage  to  the 
mucus  membrane  of  the  mouth,  used  in  straining  out  of  the 
water  the  minute  animals  serving  its  owner  for  food.  The 
discovery  that  the  young  or  f  cetal  bearded  whale  has  teeth, 
which  are  never  cut,  but  are  soon  reabsorbed,  deserves  to  be 
noted  here  as  a  remarkable  instance  of  unexpected  genealogi- 
cal testimony.  We  are  thus  informed  that  the  present  whales 
are  lineally  descended  from  toothed  whales  not  unlike  the 
dolphin.  The  cetaceans  were  most  plentifully  represented  in 
the  Miocene  period  and  at  that  time  the  two  groups  of  whales 
were  less  clearly  marked.  It  is  certain  that  the  whalebone 
whales  are  the  latest  members  of  the  group  historically.  The 
origin  of  the  group  is  shrouded  in  mystery,  a  more  or  less 
obvious  similarity  in  certain  osteological  features  to  the 
omnivorous  hoofed  animals  being  the  only  clue  as  yet  available. 


SUB-CLASS  MO^OTREMATA. 

This  sub-class  contains  the  principal  orders  of  mammals  and 
all  of  those  included  in  this  work  with  the  exception  of  the 
opossum,  which  is  the  sole  North  American  representative  of 
the  sub-class  Didelphia.  The  characters  of  the  sub-class,  so  far 
as  here  necessary,  are  the  following:  Development  of  thefcetus 
is  accomplished  through  the  agency  of  a  placenta'formed  from 
the  allantois  membrane.  The  mammary  glands  have  teats. 
There  is,  in  the  female,  a  single  vagina.  There  is  no  cloaca. 


18  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  caracoids  are  absent  or  are  represented  by  small  processes 
of  the  scapula.  There  are  no  marsupial  bones.  The  ear  has  a 
complicated  spiral  cochlea.  The  young  are  brought  forth  in 
an  advanced  stage  of  development,  not  requiring  to  be  forcibly 
fed  by  the  mother.  The  corpus  callosum  is  large  and  the 
angle  of  the  mandible  is  not  inflexed. 

The  sub-class  Monotremata  includes  the  orders  Carnivora, 
Rodentia,  Insectivora,  Edentata,  Chiroptera,  Primates,  Pinnipedia, 
Cetacea,  Sirenia,  Proboscidea  and  Ungulata,  or  in  other  words, 
all  the  cats,  dogs,  bears  and  weasels,  all  the  squirrels  and 
rabbits,  shrews  and  moles,  sloths  and  ant-eaters,  bats  and 
flying  foxes,  seals  and  walrusses,  whales  and  dolphins,  sea-cows 
and  dugongs,  elephants  and  tapirs,  and  all  the  kine  and  horses 
as  well  as  all  races  of  mankind. 

As  being  most  highly  specialized  and  departing  most  from 
what  is  assumed  as  the  primitive  type  of  mammalia,    this   sub 
class  is  considered  the  highest  of  the  three.      Fossils   indicate 
that  the  lower  sub-classes  were  once  proportionally  more  num- 
merous,  especially  the  marsupials. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  19 


CHAPTER  IT. 


ORDER  CHIROPTERA 

THE  BATS. 

This  remarkable  group  of  animals  is  at  once  the  least  under- 
stood and  most  interesting  of  the  mammalia.  The  order  is  a 
large  one,  including  over  four  hundred  species  which  are  very 
artificially  arranged  in  from  fifty  to  sixty  genera.  North 
America  is  quite  poor  in  species  as  compared  with  the  tropical 
regions  of  both  hemispheres.  The  number  of  species  in  the 
United  States  does  not  exceed  twenty,  only  five  of  which  are 
as  yet  known  to  enter  the  limits  of  our  state. 

The  bats  are  very  abruptly  separated  from  all  other  animals 
whatever,  and  even  the  paleontological  records  reveal  no  inti- 
mate relationship  with  other  mammals.  The  oldest  known 
bats,  remains  of  which  have  been  found  in  the  rocks,  are  as 
distinctly  bat-like  and  as  little  like  other  mammals  as  those 
which  now  flit  about  upon  moon-lit  evenings. 

Bats  are  primarily  distinguished  from  all  other  mammals  by 
the  possession  of  true  wings.  There  are,  indeed,  flying  squir- 
rels, flying  marsupials  and  flying  lemurs,  but  in  none  of  these 
cases  is  flight  occasioned  by  true  wings  formed  by  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  anterior  extremities.  Sharing  this  peculiarity  as 
they  do  with  birds  alone  among  vertebrates,  there  are  vastly 
fewer  points  of  similarity  than  of  difference  between  the  two 
groups.  The  wing  of  a  bird  is  produced,  it  is  true,  from  the 
hand  and  arm,  but  in  a  far  less  perfect  manner,  or  anatomically 
considered,  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  the  pentadactyl  plan  on 
which  the  hands  of  most  vertebrates  are  framed.  That  the  less 
perfect  instrument  is  able  to  effect  more  vigorous  and  longer 
sustained  flight  in  many  cases  is  due  to  other  reasons,  such  as 
the  superior  lightness  of  the  frame  of  birds.  There  are  but 
two  evident  fingers  in  birds  and  only  three  are  represented  by 
bones.  Bats  commonly  possess  five  more  or  less  perfect  digits, 
four  of  which  constitute  the  ribs  for  the  support  of  the  delicate 
and  sensitive  web  which  is  the  chief  instrument  of  support 


20  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

during  flight.  The  first  finger  may  be  reduced  to  a  single 
phalanx  and  the  other  digits  may  also  be  somewhat  reduced 
but  they  never  coalesce  as  in  birds.  The  thumb  is  commonly 
furnished  with  a  nail  which  frequently  serves  as  a  support 
during  the  day-time  or  period  of  winter  repose.  The  other 
fingers  are  greatly  elongated  and  are  very  strong  and  elastic, 
Usually  if  a  bat  is  brought  down  by  a  blow  it  will  be  found  that 
the  humerus,  or  short  bone  of  the  arm.  is  broken  while  the 
more  slender  phalanges  are  intact. 

The  volatory  apparatus,  however,  consists,  besides  the  wing 
of  various  other  membranes,  or  rather  continuations,  of  the 
web  above  mentioned.  The  humeral  portion  is  a  triangular 
gib-like  membrane  passing  from  the  wrist  to  the  sides  of  the 
neck  or  shoulder,  and  is,  in  some  species,  pocket-like.  There 
is  also  a  broad  membrane  passing  posteriorly  to  the  legs.  This 
web  corresponds  to  that  expansion  of  the  skin  which  forms 
a  parachute  by  which  flying  squirrels  "fly."  Another  portion, 
the  interfemoral  membrane,  connects  the  feet  with  each  other. 
The  tail  is  ordinarily  included  in  this  membrane,  but  its  apex 
may  extend  beyond,  or  it  may  be  entirely  wanting.  In  some 
species  the  leg  is  armed  with  long  spurs  homologous  with  the 
cartilage  upon  the  wrist  of  the  flying  squirrel  which  serve  as 
supports  to  the  web. 

The  form  is  various,  but  is  uniformly  plump  with  a  short 
neck  and  thick  body. 

When  not  in  motion  the  ensemble  is  bizarre  and  formless. 
(See  Fig.  1,  heads  of  various  bats. )  The  smaller  bats  resemble 
mice  in  their  pelage  and  general  appearance  and  are  retaliative 
and  fierce  when  caught. 

The  head  is  rendered  remarkable  by  enormously  expanded 
ears,  often  provided  with  a  large  simple  or  lobed  tragus  which 
serves  as  a  sort  of  valve  for  closing  the  ear.  In  many  species 
the  nose  is  also  ornamented  with  extraordinary  folds  of  skin, 
which  seem  to  be  the  seat  of  the  delicate  tactile  sense  for  which 
bats  are  distinguished.  The  eyes  of  bats  are  very  small,  and  seem 
adapted  to  the  peculiar  nocturnal  habits  of  the  animal,  but  are 
supplemented  by  the  senses  of  touch  and  hearing.  In  a  room, 
across  which  wires  have  been  stretched  in  all  directions,  a  bat 
will  fly  freely  without  dashing  against  them  even  when  the 
eyes  are  destroyed  or  blindfolded. 

The  volar  membrane  is  itself  very  sensitive,  being  richly 
supplied  with  nerves  as  well  as  bloodvessels.  In  the  eye  of 
nocturnal  animals,  generally  the  spindle-shaped  bodies  in  the 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


21 


retina,  which  seem  to  be  the  seat  of  the  color  sense,  are  absent, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  all  variations  of  color  are  translated 
into  shades  of  black  and  white,  so  that  the  world  seems  to  a 
bat  like  a  charcoal  drawing  or  steel  engraving.  The  sense  of 
hearing  is  highly,  but  peculiarly  developed.  The  reader  may 
have  noticed  that  the  vocal  powers  of  bats  are  not  great,  and 
that  the  vdice  is  pitched  very  high,  so  high  indeed,  that,  to 
many  ears,  the  tones  are  indistinguishable.  The  sense  of  hear- 
ing is  similarly  keyed,  so  that  the  bat  can  readily  distinguish 
tones  which  the  human  ear  is  not  adapted  to  perceive.  Thus 
the  hum  of  an  insect  which  will  startle  a  bat  could  only  be  ap- 
preciated by  us  as  we  observe  the  motion  of  the  wings  causing  it. 


4. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  1. 

1.    Epomophorus.  3.    Chseronycteris. 

Pteropus.  4. 

lerma.  6. 


Pteropi 
Megaue 


ny( 

Pbyllorhina. 
Chilonycteris. 


The  bats  of  temperate  regions  pass  the  winter  in  caverns  and 
deserted  buildings,  where,  collected  in  vast  numbers,  they  sleep 
during  the  cold  season.  The  winter's  sleep  varies  in  length 
and  soundness  with  different  species.  A  sort  of  classification 
may  be  observed  in  the  myriads  of  animals  which  congregate 
in  such  places,  those  which  are  least  susceptible  to  cold  being 
found  in  the  more  exposed  portions,  while  the  more  sensitive 
ones  are  fou"nd  in  securer  retreats.  Bats  congregate  in  such 
rendezvous  from  great  distances  and  the  period  during  which 
the  scattered  tribes  are  gathering  is  one  of  commotion,  quar- 
reling and  screaming.  The  sleepy  animals  are  in  a  petulant  hu- 
mor and  struggle  for  the  best  places  so  as  to  be  most  aptly  com- 
pared to  a  covey  of  chickens  settling  themselves  upon  their 


22  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

roosts  at  night.  In  such  resorts,  which  are  ordinarily  used 
during  summer  as  sleeping  places  during  the  day,  immense 
quantities  of  guano  are  deposited  which  become  valuable  as 
nitre  supplies.  Thus  the  insignificant  bat  plays  no  insignifi- 
cant part  in  the  warlike  preparations  of  militant  nations,  as 
the  nitre  so  secured  is  an  essential  factor  in  gunpowder. 
During  hibernation  and  daily  sleep,  bats  are  in  danger  from 
prowling  animals  which  creep  upon  them  when  at  rest;  while 
during  their  hawking  excursions  after  insects  they  frequently 
fall  victim  to  the  nocturnal  birds  of  prey. 

Bats  may  be  reckoned  among  the  beneficial  animals,  as  their 
food  consists  almost  exclusively  of  insects  in  temperate  regions. 
They  are  aptly  compared  to  swallows,  as  their  benevolent  in- 
tent and  their  graceful  motions  are  both  similar.  The  bats  of 
the  tropics  are  larger  and  do  not  content  themselves  with  in- 
sects and  other  small  arthropods.  Various  fruits  form  a  wel- 
come contingent,  if  not  the  staple  of  the  diet,  while  still  others 
are  bloodthirsty  enemies  of  large  animals  which  they  attack 
stealthily,  sucking  the  blood  painlessly  and  escape  unperceived. 

The  hair  of  bats  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  other 
mammals  by  its  peculiar  microscopical  structure.  The  fine  fur 
is  a  refuge  for  many  parasites  of  various  sorts.  It  remains  to 
mention  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  group. 

The  dentition  is  extremely  variable,  but  in  general  resembles 
that  of  the  Insectivora.  The  greatest  diversities  are  found 
between  the  f  rugivorous  and  insectivorous  bats.  The  number 
of  teeth  varies  from  24  to  38.  The  statements  of  various  auth- 
ors vary  greatly  as  to  the  number  of  teeth — a  fact  caused  by 
their  deciduous  character,  particularly  of  the  incisors  and  pre- 
molars.  The  molars  have  two  or  three  points  which  are  vari- 
ously arranged  and  those  of  opposite  teeth  fit  between  each 
other.  The  incisors  are  small  and  above  are  often  arranged 
in  oblique  series  not  meeting  in  the  median  line.  The  milk 
dentition  is  quite  different  from  the  permanent. 

Most  species  produce  but  a  single  young  at  a  birth  or  at  most 
two.  The  mother  hangs  by  the  thumbs,  it  is  said,  and  the 
young  are  dropped  into  a  pocket  formed  by  the  incurved  tail  with 
the  membranes  attached.  Here  they  remain  clinging  for  a  day 
to  peculiar  processes  between  the  thighs,  or  at  once  clamber  up 
to  the  two  pectoral  mammae.  Although  northern  species  mate 
ordinarily  in  Autumn,  eggs  are  not  fertilized  until  Spring, 
when  impregnation  takes  place.  The  placenta  is  disc -like  and 
the  uterus  has  two  cornua.  The  penis  is  pendulous. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  23 

The  form  of  the  skull  is  extremely  variable  and  affords  a 
safe  guide  to  the  habits  of  the  various  species.  Compare,  for 
instance,  the  skulls  of  Chceronycteris  and  Chilonycteris.  Most  of 
the  true  bats  have  no  post  orbital  frontal  processes.  The  nasals 
are  generally  short  and  vary  much  in  form.  The  most  re- 
markable differences  are  found  in  the  form  of  the  pre-maxillary 
bones.  In  EhinolopMdce,  they  are  rudimentary.  The  zygo- 
mas  are  well  developed  in  the  flying  foxes,  but  are  wanting  in 
several  species  of  true  bats.  The  auditory  bullae  are  usually 
large  and  well  developed.  The  vertebral  column  is  short.  The 
dorsal  vertebrae  number  twelve  or  thirteen.  The  caudal  verte- 
brae are  cylindrical,  without  processes.  There  are  also  no 
spinous  processes  upon  the  cervicals  and  dorsals.  The  clavi- 
cles are  strong  and  curved.  The  scapula  is  large,  the  post 
scapular  fossa  being  much  the  larger,  the  spine  is  large,  as  are 
the  acromium  and  the  coracoid.  Although  tne  humerus  is 
long,  it  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the  bones  of  the  forearm  and 
all  these  bones  have  large  medullary  cavities.  The  ulnar  is 
rudimentary;  the  scaphoid,  lunar  and  cuneiform  bones  are 
united. 

The  thumb  terminates  in  a  claw  as  does  the  index  in  many 
forms.  The  pelvis  is  weak.  The  pubic  bones  are  widely  sep- 
arated in  the  females.  The  fibula  is  often  rudimentary.  The 
calcaneum  forms  a  long  cartilaginous  process  or  spur  which 
supports  the  interfemoral  web.  The  sensory  apparatus,  al- 
ready referred  to,  consists  of  several  peculiar  foliaceous  expan- 
sions about  the  nose  and  ears  as  well  as  the  ordinary  organs. 
Aside  from  these  are  glandular  appendages  near  the  muzzle 
covered  with  fine  tactile  hairs  like  the  vibrissae  of  other  ani- 
mals. The  ears  are  also  greatly  developed,  with  membranous 
expansions  and  fringing  appendages  in  many  species.  Each 
ear  is  movable  independently.  The  lips  are  often  curiously 
modified  and  are  "very  sensitive.  The  alimentary  canal  is  quite 
complicated  in  the  frugivorous  bats  but  has  the  ordinary  car- 
nivorous structure  in  entomophaga.  The  liver  is  always  large. 

For  farther  details  regarding  the  anatomy  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  discussion  of  our  native  species. 

Here  it  may  "not  be  amiss  to  pass  in  review  a  few  of  the  more 
important  families  and  genera. 

It  is  common,  first  of  all,  to  divide  the  Chiroptera  into  two 
sub-orders.  Sub-order  Carpophaga  or  the  fruit-feeding  bats 
embraces  the  flying  foxes  and  includes  but  the  single  family 
Pteropodidce. 


24  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  family  Pteropodidce  is  characterized  by  a  relatively  large  size  and  the 
peculiar  dentition.  The  head  is  fox-like  or  dog-like  and  there  is  no  re- 
markably developed  tragus,  the  ear  being  of  ordinary  form.  The  first 
finger  has  usually  a  curved  claw  and  is  very  short.  The  middle  finger  has 
but  two  phalanges.  The  skull  is  elongated.  The  molars  have  blunt 
tubercles,  nevertheless  the  dentition  is  to  be  considered  as  a  modified  in- 
sectivorous rather  than  a  vegetarian  type,  as  is  indicated  by  the  sharp  and 
well  developed  canines.  The  peculiar  form  may  be  construed  as  the 
result  of  long  continued  vegetarian  habit.  The  digestive  tract  also  indi- 
cates a  vegetable  diet,  a  well  developed  caecum  being  present.  None  of 
the  species  suck  blood  although  they  do  feed  upon  small  animals. 

The  principal  genus  is  Pteropus  which  includes  the  largest  of  bats,  some 
of  which  measure  nearly  two  yards  in  expanse  of  wings.  Over  fifty  species 
or  over  half  the  family  are  included  in  this  genus.  The  genus  is  at  home 
in  Australia  and  adjacent  lands.  Some  species  furnish  a  relished  food. 

The  other  genera  are  as  follows:  Cynonycteris  Peters,  occurs  in  Africa 
and  the  species  are  characterized  by  short  tails  and  the  following  denti- 
tion: |:|  }  |  i  f  :jh  Cynopterus  Geoff.,  and  Ptenochiws  Peters,  both  have  a 
formula  f:f  if  \  |:f,  the  latter  having  the  tail  distinct.  In  Megcerops 
Peters,  the  tail  is  absent  and  the  formula  is  f  :|  ill  |:f  — the  only  species 
inhabiting  Sumatra.  Harpyia  Illiger,  has  a  still  more  peculiar  dentition, 
l-l  t  f  i  t:l  an(i  is  found  represented  by  one  species  in  the  Celebes,  etc. 
Epomophorus  Bennett,  has  a  short  tail,  the  dental  formula  being  i:|  \  f  { 
|:|.  The  eight  or  more  species  inhabit  Africa  including  the  Hypsigna- 
thus  of  Allen.  The  dentition  of  Cephalotes  Geoff.,  is  J:J  *  f  f  fc:f.  The 
tail  is  short,  the  volar  membrane  springs  from  the  spinal  region,  and  the 
index  has  a  nail.  MacroglossusCu\.t  contains  two  species  found  in  Siam 
and  Australia.  The  tongue  is  long  and  protrusible,  the  dentition  is 
I't  i  t  i  f  :f  •  The  genus  Pterocyon  is  represented  by  a  single  African 
species. 

The  suborder  Entomophaga  contains  all  other  bats.  The  dentition  is 
like  that  of  the  Insectivora  with  pointed  cusps  upon  the  molars.  The 
thumb  only  has  a  claw  and  the  muzzle  is  short. 

The  first  group,  Phyllostomata,  contains  families  which  have  large 
membranous  processes  on  the  nose. 

The  family  Megadermata  has  well  developed  nasal  appendages  and  large 
tragi  or  ear  valves.  The  single  phalanx  of  the  index  is  short.  The  Genus 
Ehinopoma  is  represented  by  a  single  Egyptian  species.  The  nose  is  but 
slightly  appendaged,  the  tail  long  and  mouse  like,  while  the  dental  for- 
mula is  i  |  i  |.  The  warmer  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa  furnishf  our  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Megaderma,  The  tail  is  absent,  the  inberfemoral  web 
extensive.  Dentition  varying  from  f  } |:f  to  g  1  i:|.  Closely  related  is 
Nycteris  Geoff.,  which  has  a  membrane  connecting  the  ears.  Ten  species 
mostly  from  Africa  with  dentition  f  £  £:f . 

Nyctophylus  and  Antrozous  are  given  as  generic  names  under  this  family. 

The  Rhinolophidce  constitute  the  second  family  of  leaf-nosed  bats.  These 
horse-shoe  nosed  bats  have  large  appendages  upon  the  nose.  The  index 
digit  is  reduced,  the  second  digit  has  two  phalanges.  The  tragus  is 
wanting.  The  skull  is  remarkable  for  a  prominent  excrescence  of  the 
nasals  and  the  peculiar  form  of  the  intermaxillary,  the  horizontal  part 
alone  being  developed,  forming  a  movable  plate.  The  family  is  found  in 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  25 

all  parts  of  the  world  except  America.  Many  of  the  species  are  very 
widely  distributed.  E.  Geoff.  St.  Hilaire  distinguished  the  family1  under 
the  generic  name  Rhinolophus  which  is  now  restricted  to  include  about 
thirty  species  of  this  large  family.  Dentition  I  {  |:f.  Upper  nasal  ap- 
pendage lance-shaped,  pointed.  First  toe  two- join  ted,  others  three- 
jointed,  spurs  well  developed. 

Genus  Phyllorhina,  Bonaparte.  Dentition  i  i  f  :f.  All  the  toes  two- 
jointed,  tail  long,  spurs  well  developed.  Over  twenty-five  species  from 
Africa  and  eastward.  The  genus  Coelopst  Blyth,  has  the  some  formula. 
The  nasal  appendage  is  two-lobed  with  a  heart-shaped  prominence.  Toes 
all  two-jointed.  Interfemoral  membrane  angularly  excised.  Only  one 
species  found  in  Bengal. 

The  third  family  is  the  Phyllostomidce. 

This  very  extensive  family  of  Vampire  bats  is  confined  to  South  America. 
In  most  genera  only  two  small  but  broad  incisors  are  found  above.  The 
canines  are  very  large,  particularly  below.  The  tall  is  often  absent.  The 
vampire  bats,  although  insectivorus  ordinarily,  sometimes  inflict  damage 
by  sucking  the  blood  of  domestic  animals  and  particularly  of  horses,  kiue 
being  nearly  exempt  from  their  attacks.  In  the  sub-family  Vampyri  are 
nine  genera  only  two  of  which,  Phyllostoma  and  Vampyrus,  are  rich  in 
species.  The  formula  for  the  dentition  of  the  vampires  is  f  |  f :|.  The 
tail  is  frequently  absent. 

The  second  sub-family  Glossophagce  differs  from  the  Vampyri  in  lacking 
the  horse-shoe  appendage  of  the  lip  and  in  having  the  lower  lip  cleft. 
The  tongue  is  protrusible.  As  in  the  above  the  middle  finger  has  three 
phalanges,  and  the  tragus  is  present.  Genus  Glossophaga  with  the  inner 
upper  incisor  more  highly  developed  than  the  outer.  The  crowns  or  the 
molar  have  a  TV-shaped  figure.  The  zygoma  is  entire.  Dentition  f  i  |:|. 
Upper  and  lower  incisors  forming  a  connected  series. 

The  genus  Monophyllus,  Leach,  differs  in  having  the  incisors  in  pairs,  the 
lower  being  small.  The  interfemoral  membrane  is  small,  the  short  tail 
extending  beyond  it. 

The  genus  Ischnoglossa,  Sauss,  has  a  single  doubtful  species  with  no  tail. 
Pfiyllonycteris,  Gundlach,  has  the  formula  f  {  |:|.  "  The  zygoma  is  absent. 
One  or  two  species  inhabit  the  Antilles.  Peltorhinus  contains  a  species 
from  Jamaica  Lonchoglossa,  Peters,  has  the  formula  \  {  f :£.  Inner  upper 
incisor  smaller  than  the  outer.  Lower  ones  deciduous,  zygoma  present. 
One  species  in  Brazil.  Glossonycteris,  Peters,  has  the  inner  upper  incisor 
smaller  than  the  outer.  Zygoma  absent.  Formula  as  in  the  above. 
Choeronycteris,  Lichtenstein,  also  has  the  same  formula.  Lower  incisors 
and  first  upper  premolar  deciduous.  Anterior  molars  very  small,  only 
provided  with  an  anterior  prominence.  Two  species  inhabit  Mexico  and 
Surinam. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  bats  furnishes  a  number  of 
interesting  facts.  The  order  is  represented  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  globe  and  the  species  are  most  numerous  in  the  warmer 

1.  Fitzinger  in  1869-70  gave  a  compiled  account  ofthis  family  which,  although  entitled 
a  "critical  review  of  the  Rhinolophi"  in  the  Sitzenb.  d.  Wiener  Akademie  der  Wissen- 
schaft  seems  to  include  many  synonyms  and  to  omit  some  modern  species.  The  most 
reliable  account  seems  to  be  that  of  W.  Peters,  June,  1871,  in  the  Monats  bericht  der 
Koenigl.  Akad,  zu  Berlin,  from  which  our  statements  are  taken. 
-2 


26  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

zones.  The  few  isolated  regions  where  they  do  not  occur,  as 
Iceland,  St.  Helena,  Galapagos  Islands  and  Kerguelan  Islands 
are  mostly  such  as  have  few  flying  insects.  The  faunas  of  the 
eastern  and  western  hemispheres  are  very  distinct.  But  one 
species  and  three  genera  and  two  families  are  represented  in 
both. 

The  Vespertilionidce  have  the  widest  range  of  any  of  the 
families  of  bats,  the  Emballonuridce  being  next  in  order  of  ex- 
tent.  The  Pteropodidce  are  found  in  the  Ethiopian,  Oriental 
and  Australian  regions,  the  Malay  Archipelago  being,  perhaps, 
the  central  point. 

The  Rhinolophidce  are  restricted  to  the  eastern  and  the  Phyl- 
lostomidce  to  the  western  hemisphere.  There  are  many  instan- 
ces of  apparently  arbitrary  restriction  of  species  and  genera 
to  limited  stations,  but  more  of  unusually  wide  distribution.  Of 
the  origin  of  the  group  we  have  no  knowledge.  The  oldest 
fossil  bat  is  from  the  Eocene  of  Montmartre  and  differs  very 
little  from  the  modern  genus  Vespertilio.  It  can  not  be  doubted 
that  the  type  is  a  very  old  one  and  in  spite  of  several  apparent 
links  with  the  Insectivora,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  bats 
are  derived  from  a  primitive  and  perhaps  an  aquatic  vertebrate 
allied  with  Amphibia. 

Linnseus  knew  seven  species  of  bats  while  the  present  enu- 
meration includes  above  four  hundred  species. 

Dr.  Harrison  Allen  in  his  monograph  of  the  bats  of  North 
America,  published  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the  Mis- 
cellaneous Collections,  1867,  enumerates  twenty  species,  sev- 
eral of  which  must  be  regarded  as  synonyms. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  mentions  six  species  from  New  England  in 
his  catalogue  of  the  mammals  of  Massachusetts  published  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology. 

This  number  is  naturally  greater  than  can  be  expected  from 
a  single  inland  state.  Only  three  species  have  been  collected 
during  the  progess  of  this  survey,  which  are  described  to- 
gether with  the  notices  of  the  species  otherwise  known  to  occur 
in  our  limits. 

Only  one  leaf -nosed  bat  occurs  in  the  United  States,  the  Mac- 
rotus  californicus  of  Baird,  which  occurs  in  California,  south- 
ward. The  N'octilionidce  are  represented  by  a  Mexican  species, 
Nyctinomus  nasutus. 

Several  genera  of  the  Family  Vespertilionidce  occur  as 
follows: 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  27 

GENUS  NYCTICEJUS,     RAF. 

This  genus  is  defined  as  follows  by  Dr.  Harrison  Allen: 

Head  short,  broad,  flat;  ears  small,  simple,  widely  separated; 
upper  incisors  two;  membranes  naked. 

Skull  intermediate  between  that  of  Scotophilus  and  Lasiurus, 
flat,  but  not  to  the  extent  seen  in  the  former;  cranium  inflated, 
but  not  so  much  as  in  the  latter.  It  is  not  elevated;  the  occip- 
ital elevation  is  not  abrupt  compared  with  that  of  L.  novebora- 
censis,  a  bat  of  nearly  the  same  size,  it  is  longer,  and  the  face 
more  pointed.  The  palate  is  more  level  and  does  not  slope  so 
much  as  its  posterior  part.  The  infra- orbital  foramen  is  larger, 
with  a  slight  tendency  toward  the  formation  of  a  groove.  The 
lower  jaw  is  less  abrupt;  the  incisors  are  placed  more  ante- 
riorly to  the  canines  in  a  larger  arc. 

Dentition — incisors  i,  canines  J-,  molars  fx  2= 30.  Upper  jaw: 
Incisors  small,  contiguous  to  canines,  and  slightly  converging; 
canines  large,  simple.  Molars  not  peculiar.  The  first  more 
slender  and  longer  than  the  others,  but  not  so  broad,  destitute 
of  the  W- shaped  crown. 

Lower  jaw:  Incisors  not  crowded,  bifid.  Canine  simple, 
turned  markedly  backward;  basal  ridge  anteriorly  well  devel- 
oped; first  premolar  larger  than  the  same  tooth  in  Lasiurus, 
but  in  comparison  with  the  second  is  of  itself  small.  The  sec- 
ond premolar,  if  produced,  would  touch  an  extended  line  from 
the  canine.  The  basal  ridges  of  both  these  teeth  are  large. 
Molars  not  peculiar. 

Nycticejus  erepuscularis  LEG.,  SP. 

TWILIGHT  BAT. 

Vespertilio  crepuscular is  LECONTE.    Guv.  An.  King.,  1831;  Proc.  Acad.  Nat. 

Sci.  vii,  1855. 

Vespertilio  creeks  FR.  CTJVIER.    Nouv.  Ann.  du  Mus.,  1832. 
Nycticejus  humeralis  RAFINESQUE.    Journ.  du  Phys.,  1819. 
Nycticejus  erepuscularis  IT.  ALLEN.    Smith.  Misc.  Coll.  vol.  vii,  1864. 
Nycticejus  erepuscularis  DOBSON.    Catalogue  Chiroptera,  1878. 
Atalapha  (Nycticejus)  erepuscularis  COUES.  SURV.  100th  Mer.  Rep.  Zool.,  1875. 
Color  somewhat  variable,  face  black,  membranes  blackish 
brown,  back  dark  fawn  to  brown,  below  lighter,  brownish  ears 
small,  "internal  basal  lobe  small  and  curved,  external  basal 
lobe  also  rather  inconspicuous,  between  the  latter  and  the  angle 
of  the  mouth  a  small  wart  is  present,"  tragus  straight  on  the 
internal  and  irregularly  convex  on  outer  border.     Sides  of  face 
swollen,  chin  with  a  naked  space,  eyes  small  with  a  wart  above 


28  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

each.  Interfemoral  web  moderate,  calcaneal  small,  tip  of  tail 
exserted. 

Fur  scanty,  rather  woolly,  membranes  naked. 

Length  2,  tail  1.5,  fore-arm  1.4,  tibia  0.6,  thumb  0.4,  ear  0.4, 
tragus  0.25,  expanse  of  wings  9.6. 

Although  not  reported,  this  species  may  be  found  in  Minne- 
sota. 

GENUS  LASIURUS,  RAF. 

(=Atalapha.) 

I  have  not  the  necessary  advantages  for  deciding  which  name 
should  be  employed  for  this  genus  and  hence  follow  American 
usage.  Some  ten  nominal  species  are  known  from  North  and 
South  America.  Three  species  occur  in  the  United  States  two 
of  which  are  known  from  Minnesota. 

Skull  massive,  broad,  high  posteriorly;  facial  portion  rather 
high,  passing  with  little  flexure  into  the  cranial,  nasal  portion 
very  broad,  hiatus  between  the  upper  incisors  of  either  side 
wide,  quadrately  excavated.  Zygoma  complete.  Distance  be- 
tween the  orbital  space  and  the  front  of  skull  very  short. 
Pterygoids  projecting  inferiorly.  Dentition,  i.  £  c.  J-  ra.  |  (£• ) 
x2  =  32  (30).  Last  upper  molar  greatly  compressed  from  be- 
fore backward.  Scapula  elongated  with  very  long  metacromial 
and  caracoid  processes.  This  genus  differs  from  Nycticejus  in 
the  fact  that  the  anterior  premolar,  although  small,  is  'present 

Lasiimis  noveboracensis  ERXL.,  SP. 

RED  BAT. 

Vespertilio  noveboracensis  ERXLEBEN.    Sjst.  Keg.  Anim.,  1777. 

HAKLAN.    Fauna  Americana,  1825. 

GODMAN.    Amer.  "Sat.  Hist.,  1826. 

COOPER.    Ann.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.  N.  Y.,  1837. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Sci.,  1855. 
Nycticejus  noveboracensis  LECONTE.    Ouv.  Regn.  Annual,  1831. 

TEMMINCK.     Monog.  ii,  1835-1841. 

WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreb.  Sauget.,  1840. 

SCHINZ.    Synopsis  Mam.,  1844. 

MAX.  WIED.    Archiv.  Naturg.,  1861. 
Lasiurus  noveboracensis  TOMES.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1857. 

H.  ALLEN.    Monogr.  N.  A.  Bats,  1864. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 

J.  A.  ALLEN.    Catalogue  Mam.  Mass.,  1869. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.        J '  29 

Vespertilio  lasiurus  GMELIN.    Syst.  Nat.,  1788. 

SCHREBEB.     Saug.,  1826. 

GEOFFKOY.    Ann.  du  Mus.  viii,  1806. 

DESMAREST.    Mammals,  1820. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis  Mam.,  1829. 
Nycticejus  lasiurus  WAGNER.    Schreb.  Saug.,  1840. 
Vespertilio  rubellus  BEAUVOIS.    Cat.  Peale's  Mus.,  1796. 
Vespertiho  nllosissimus  GEOFFROY.    Ann.  du  Mus.  viii,  1806. 

DESMAREST.    Mam.,  1830. 

FISCHER.    Synop.  Mam.,  1829. 

Vespertilio  monachus  RAFINESQUE.    Am.  Monthly  Mag.,  1817. 
Vespertilio  tessalatus  "  "  "  "         " 

Tapliyzous  rufus  HARLAN.    Fauna  Americana,  1825. 
Lasiurus  rufus  GRAY.    List  Mam.  Brit.  Mus.,  1843. 

GOSSE.    Naturalist  in  Jamaica,  1851. 
Vespertilio  blossevilii  LESS  ET  GARN.    Bull,  des  Sci.  Nat.  viii. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis  Mam.,  1829. 

LA  SAGRA.    Hist,  de  Pile  de  Cut  a,  1840. 
Vespertilio  bonariensis  LESSING.    Voyage  de  la  Coquille,  1829. 
Nycticejus  varius  POEPP.    Reise  Chili,  i,  1835. 

WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreb.  Saug.,  1840. 

GAY.    Hist,  de  Chili,  1848. 

Atalapha  (Lasiurus)  noveboracensis  COUES.    Surv.  100th  Mer.  Zoology,  1875. 

This  species  is  exceedingly  variable  and  is  regarded  by  many 

authors  as  including  the  following.     A  point  upon  which  the 

"writer  can  express  no  opinion  on  account  of  the  poverty  of  the 

material  at  command.     I  shall  quote  Allen's  description  and 

add  such  other  points  as  are  available: 

"Head  and  face  hairy;  nose  blunt,  rounded,  slightly  emargi- 
nated,  nostrils  opening  semilaterally.  The  sides  of  the  face 
slightly  inflated  and  set  with  stiff  hairs.  A  similar  row  of 
longer  hairs  surrounds  the  eyes.  The  upper  lip,  especially  at 
the  sides  of  the  face,  is  more  massive  than  the  lower,  and  is 
somewhat  produced.  The  ears  are  sub- rounded — the  inner 
border  straight  until  near  the  tip  when  it  suddenly  turns  out- 
ward; at  its  base  is  a  well  developed  lobe  which  is  close  to,  but 
slightly  behind  the  tragus.  The  outer  border  is  slightly  con- 
vex, and  terminates  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  On  a  line  with 
the  outer  border  of  the  ear  a  sharply  defined  lobe  is  noticed, 
which  at  first  appears  to  be  the  termination  of  the  border,  but 
upon  close  examination  it  is  found  to  continue  on  to  the  angle 
of  the  mouth.  Between  this  lobe  and  the  mouth  there  is  placed 
a  small  wart  covered  with  setae.  The  tragus  is  half  the  height 
of  the  ear,  is  straight  on  the  inner  edge,  except  at  the  point, 
where  it  turns  abruptly  inwards.  The  outer  border  has  a  very 
irregular  outline.  The  basal  portion  is  indentated.  This  in- 
dentation, which  in  comparison  with  other  species  of  Vesper- 


30  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

tilionidae  is  considerable,  is  of  itself  not  very  deep,  and  ends  in 
the  most  convex  point  of  the  tragus,  whence  the  border  runs 
upward  and  inward  to  the  tip.  The  lower  jaw  is  covered  with 
short  hairs,  and  has  at  its  symphysis  a  small  naked  space 
which  is  gradually  lost  along  the  sides  of  the  mouth.  The  pos- 
terior surface  of  the  ear  is  covered  with  hair  one-half  its  length, 
which  extends  upon  the  anterior  production  of  the  external 
border  down  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

The  fur  of  the  body  is  everywhere  long  and  silky.  Anteri- 
orly it  is  rather  denser  though  not  quite  so  long  as  that  pos- 
teriorly. It  is  of  a  light  russet  red,  tinged  with  yellow,  being 
tipped  with  gray  toward  the  neck,  and  varying  to  fawn  color, 
in  some  specimens,  toward  the  pubis.  Fur  of  the  same  gen- 
eral hue  extends  from  the  body  upon  the  alar  membranes  up 
to  the  base  of  the  third  finger  of  either  side  and  blends  with 
that  upon  the  anterior  surface  of  the  interfemoral  membrane 
at  about  the  region  of  the  tibiofemoral  articulation.  The  hair 
upon  the  latter  membrane  runs  down  fully  one-half  its  length 
in  most  specimens.  The  interbrachial  expansion  also  possesses 
a  sparse  growth  of  yellowish  fur.  Posteriorly  the  fur  is  very 
long,  and  presents  a  richer  appearance  than  anteriorly.  The 
russet  red  color  is  here  predominant  in  the  majority  of  indi- 
viduals, though  we  meet  with  a  great  variety  of  hues  of  fawn, 
fawn-red,  and  yellowish  cinereous.  At  each  shoulder  a  con- 
spicuous white  tuft  of  hair  is  seen;  this  is  not  elevated  above 
the  surrounding  fur  of  the  neck  with  which  its  whitish  color 
gradually  blends. 

The  posterior  surface  of  the  alar  membranes  is  less  extensively 
furred  along  the  brachial  and  digital  regions  than  the  anterior 
surface,  being  here  almost  altogether  confined  to  longitudinal 
bands  extending  from  the  neck  downwards  across  the  inter- 
brachial membrane  midway  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow, 
and  thence  continued  along  the  sides  of  the  body  and  external 
border  of  the  tibia  to  the  ankle  and  tarsus  of  either  side.  The 
dorsum  of  the  fifth  finger,  for  about  one- third  of  its  length,  is 
covered  with  fine  scattering  hair.  The  basal  joint  of  the 
thumb  is  decorated  with  a  whitish  tuft.  The  posterior  surface 
of  the  interfemoral  is  very  thickly  covered  over  its  whole  area 
with  fur  of  the  same  color  as  that  of  the  body.  The  difference 
in  hue  of  various  individuals  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  colora- 
tion of  the  tips  of  the  hair.  Each  hair  is  tinged  as  follows: 
The  base  dark  plumbeous  in  color  verging  to  black;  the 
middle,  a  delicate  yellowish-brown,  passing  outwards  toward 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  31 

the  tip  to  a  darkish-red,  in  some  instances  to  a  brighter  red, 
more  rarely  to  a  beautiful  chocolate.  The  point  is  generally 
white.  The  color  of  the  membranes  is  a  rich  brown,  border- 
ing on  a  yellowish-brown,  above  the  head.  The  ears  and  lips 
are  marked  with  yellow  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  next 
species  (L.  cinereus)  they  are  marked  with  black." 

Dr.  Allen  notices  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  northern  speci- 
mens to  be  constantly  darker,  the  chocolate  or  dark  red  pre- 
dominating, while  toward  the  south  the  pelage  is  generally  of 
a  brighter  hue. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  affirms  that  there  is  a  well  marked  sexual 
distinction,  males  being  unil'ormely  lighter  in  color.  "In  a 
series  of  about  twenty  Massachusetts  skins,  nearly  all  marked 
for  sex  by  the  collector,  all  the  males  are  of  a  beautiful  light, 
bright,  yellowish  red,  with  scarcely  a  trace  of  the  apical  white; 
the  females,  though  somewhat  more  variable,  tre  universally 
darker,  the  light  led  of  the  males  being  replaced  in  these  by 
dark  russet,  which  is  more  or  less  obscured  by  the  whitish  tips 
of  the  fur. " 

Mr.  Allen  inclines  to  the  belief  that  the  following  species  is 
merely  a  variety  of  the  present  one.  Ac  least,  they  are  very 
similar  and  extremely  variable. 

I  regret  that  no  opportunity  has  been  afforded  to  compare 
the  osteology  of  the  two  species,  but  probably  the  description 
given  will  apply  with  very  slight  exception  to  this  form. 

Length  1.9-2.0,  tail  1.9-2.0,  fore  arm  1.6,  tibia  0.9,  longest 
finger  3.5,  thumb,  0.45,  ear  0.5,  tragus  0.3,  expanse  of  wings 
12.0. 

This  is  a  widely  distributed  species  not  very  common  in  Min- 
nesota. 

Lasiurus  cinereus  BEAUVOIS,  SP. 

HOARY  BAT. 

Vespertilio  cinereus  PALISOT  DE  BEAUVOIS.    Cat.  Peale's  Mus.  1796. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Phila.    Acad.  Sci.,  1855. 
Vespertilio  pruinosus  SAY.    Long's  Exped.   to  Rocky  Mts.,  1823. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825;  Med.  and  Phys.  Researches, 
1831. 

GODMAN.    Amer.  Nat.  Hist.,  1826. 

RICHARDSON.    Fauna  Bor.  Am.,  1829. 

COOPER.    Ann.  Lye.  N..Y.  iv,  1837. 

DEKAY.    Nat.  Hist.,  N.  Y.  (Zool.),  1842. 
Scotvphilus  pruinosus  GRAY.    Mag.  Zool.  and  Bot.   ii.,  1838. 


32  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Nycticejus  pruinosus  TEMMINCK.    Monogr.  Mam.  1835. 

SCHINZ.    Synop.  Mam.  Mass.,  1845. 

MAX  V.  WIED.    Arch.  Naturg.,  1861. 
Lasiurus  Pruinosus  TOMES.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1857. 
Lasiurus  dnereus  H.  ALLEN.    Monog.  Bats  N.  A.,  1864. 

J.  A.  ALLEN.    Cat.  Mam.  Mass.,  1869. 
Atalapha  dnerea  DOBSON.    Cat.  Chiropt.,  Brit.  Mus.,  1878. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  U.  S. 
Atalapha  (Lasiurus)  dnereus  COUES,  Surv.  100th  Mer.  Zool.,  1875. 

In  form  and  general  appearance  much  like  the  last  with 
which  it  is  sparingly  distributed.  It  may  at  once  be  disting- 
uished in  ordinary  cases  by  the  black  upon  the  face  and  mar- 
gins of  the  ears.  The  head  is  large,  blunt,  and  moderately  in- 
flated at  the  cheeks.  Nose  emarginate,  nostrils  being  widely 
separated,  lateral.  Ears  large,  sub-quadrate,  strongly  lobed 
at  the  base  in  front,  margins  re  volute,  black.  Tragus  rather 
small,  anterior  border  nearly  straight,  hairy  without. 

Fur  long,  soft  and  thick.  General  color  above  yellowish 
brown  with  a  hoary  admixture;  intei femoral  membrane  dark 
brown,  with  a  heavy  superficial  grizzle  of  gray;  top  of  head 
creamy  yellow,  with  some  mixture  of  darker  and  white  hairs. 
There  are  a  few  yellowish  hairs  upon  the  humeral  membrane, 
while  the  shoulders  and  the  edge  of  the  interf emoral  membrane 
are  strongly  suffused  with  rufous.  There  is  a  broad  collar  of 
creamy  yellow,  while  the  breast  and  belly  are  olive  brown  over- 
laid with  much  yellowish  white.  The  muzzle,  lower  jaw,  a 
band  including  the  eyes  and  extending  upward  near  the  fore- 
head, and  the  rim  of  the  ears  are  black. 

The  inside  of  the  ears  and  upper  anterior  part  yellow.  The 
under  parts  of  the  wings  are  clothed  near  the  humerus  with 
woolly  yellow  hair;  the  base  of  the  interf  emoral  membrane  be- 
low is  densely  covered  with  dirty  yellow  hairs.  The  mem- 
branes are  black,  except  near  the  fingers  and  bones  of  arm, 
where  they  are  yellowish.  The  hairs  on  the  back  have  four 
colors,  beginning  with  a  base  of  dark  olive  brown,  nearly  black, 
then  follows  a  band  of  creamy  yellow,  more  or  less  inclined  to 
rufous  outwardly,  then  a  black  band  and  a  short  white  terminal 
portion. 

Total  length,  4.8;  nose  to  anus,  2.5;  nose  to  eye,  0.3;  tail,  2-2; 
nose  to  anterior  edge  of  ear,  0.4;  height  of  ear  (medianly),  0.6; 
total  vertical  extent  of  ear,  0.7;  width,  0.5;  expanse,  14-15; 
radial  part  of  wing,  2  1;  thumb,  0.4;  proximal  phalanx  of  second 
digit,  2.25;  distal,  0.3;  third  digit,  proximal  phalanx,  2,  10,  II, 
0. 5,  III,  0. 6,  also  bearing  a  curved  nail  giving  the  wing  a  lobate 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  33 

termination,  fourth  digit,  I,  2.10;  II,  0.5;  III,  0.6;  also  a  curved 
nail  curved  in  the  reverse  direction,  fifth  digit,  I,  1.7;  II,  0.35; 
III,  0.35;  femur,  0.8;  tibia,  0.9;  interfemoral  spur,  0.75. 

The  facial  portion  of  the  skull  is  much  higher  in  the  speci- 
men figured  than  represented  by  Allen.  Conspicuous  is  the 
sharp  downward  spur  of  the  molar  process  of  the  temporal,  and 
the  downward  inclination  of  the  pterygoid. 

The  last  molar  above  is  greatly  compressed  and  the  anterior 
premolar  may  be  absent. 

GENUS  SCOTOPHILUS. 

(=Vesperus,  Coues.) 
Dental  formula  i.  -f,  c.  },  ra.  £ x2=32. 

The  dental  formula  must  alone  be  relied  upon  to  distinguish 
this  and  the  next  two  following  genera  or  sections  for  though 
other  characters  exist  they  are  not  susceptible  of  exact  formu- 
lation, but  consist  rather  in  a  peculiar  habitus  which  must  be 
seen  to  be  appreciated. 

8cotophilus  fuscus  BEAUVOIS. 
BROWN  BAT. 

Vespertilio  fuscus  BEAUVOIS.    Cat-  Peale's  Mus.,  1796. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  1855. 
Vtspertilio  arcuatus  SAY.    Long's  Exp.  Rocky  Mts.,  1823. 
Vespertilio  phaiops  RAFINESQUE.    Am.  Month.  Mag.,  1818. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  1855. 

WAGNER.    Schreb.  Saug.,  1855. 
Vespertilio  ursinus .    TEMMINCK.    Monog.  Mam.,  1835. 

MAX.  Y.  WIED.    Archiv.  Naturg.  1861. 
Vespertilio  gryphus  FR.  CUVIER.  Ann.  Mus.  1837. 

WAGNER,  Schreber's  Saug.,  1875. 
Vespertilio  caroli  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Sci.,  1855. 
Scotophilus  fuscus  H.  ALLEN.    Monogr.  N.  Am.  Bats..,  1864. 

J.  A.  ALLEN.    Cat.  Mam.  Mass.,  1869. 
Scotophilus carolinensis  GEOFFROY,  HARLAN,  GODMAN,  LECONTE,  COOPER, 

DEKAY,  TEMMINCK,  H.  ALLEN,  ETC/ 
Vespertilio  (Vesperus)  fuscus  COUES.    Surv.  100th  Mer.,  Zool.,  1875. 

Head  flat,  nostrils  large,  separated  by  an  emargination;  ear 
less  than  head,  broad  at  the  base,  obtuse  at  tip;  tragus  about 
one-half  as  high  as  the  auricle,  notched  externally  at  base. 
Interfemoral  membrane  ample,  basal  portion  furred;  terminal 
segment  of  tail  exserted.  Wing  membrane  attached  to  base  of 
toes;  spur  well  developed.  Color  on  the  back  dusky  brown, 


34  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

the  pelage  being  plumbeous  at  the  base.  Below,  either  grayish 
white  or  as  above.  On  the  head  the  hair  is  more  lanuginous, 
extending  nearly  to  the  nose.  The  wing  membrane  is  not 
furred.  The  skull  is  large,  with  a  slight  occipital  crest;  the 
orbital  space  is  large.  Dentition  i.  J,  c.  |,  ra.  |x2=32. 

The  first  incisors  above  are  much  larger  than  the  second  and 
are  irregularly  bifid,  the  internal  cusp  beir,g  longest;  canines 
large,  with  a  minute  basal  cusp;  first  molar  narrow.  The  six 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  crowded,  tricuspidate.  The  two 
anterior  molars  (premolars)  simple. 

I  have  no  notes  as  to  the  abundance  of  this  species. 

The  following  description  will  apply  to  a  male  captured  early 
in  June,  and  will  illustrate  the  typical  condition  of  the  species 
in  Minnesota: 

Total  length,  4.1;  tail  to  anus,  17.4;  expanse,  12.70;  radius, 
1.70;  thumb,  0.25;  first  finger,  1.62;  first  phalanx  second  fin- 
ger, 1.69;  first  phalanx  third  finger,  1.58;  first  phalanx  fourth 
finger,  1.50;  tibia,  0.71;  hight  of  ear  medianly,  0.47;  tragus, 
0.30;  hight  of  ear  externally  from  base  of  opening,  0.65;  ear 
from  nose,  0.70;  eye  from  nose,  0.38;  distance  between  nostrils, 
0.15;  tail  beyond  web,  0.20. 

General  color  yellowish  brown,  inclining  to  chestnut;  below 
lighter  and  more  olivaceous;  face,  ears  and  web  black,  chin 
and  throat  dark.  Webs  scarcely  at  all  hairy.  Cheeks  tumid, 
slightly  warty;  barbse  fine,  short;  ears  high,  somewhat  acute, 
convex  on  the  front  margin;  tragus  over  one- third  the  height 
of  ear,  curved  forward;  basal  lobe  of  ear  of  moderate  size. 
Thumbs  small.  Tail  exserted;  soles  with  a  callous  at  the  heel. 

GENUS  LASIONYCTERIS. 
(=Vesperides,  Coues. ) 

This  genus  is  characterized  by  the  dental  formula  i.  f ,  c.  }-, 
ra.  |x2=36.  Central  upper  incisors  bicuspid.  Skull  rather 
flat,  not  crested.  Thumb  rather  small. 

Lasionycteris  noctivagans  LECONTE,  SP. 

SILVER-HAIRED  BAT. 

Vesperiilio  noctivagans  LECONTE.    Guv.  An.  King.,  1831. 

COOPER.     Ann.  Lye.  N.  Y.,  1837. 

DBKAY.    Nat.  Hist.  N.-Y.,  1842. 

WAGNER.    Schreb.  Saug.  1855. 
Vespertilio  auduboni  HARLAN.    Month.  Am.  Journ.,  1831. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  35 

Vespertilio  pulverukntus  TEMMINCK.    Monog.  Man.,  1835. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1855. 

MAX.  v.  WIED.    Archiv.  Naturg.,  1861. 
Scotophilus  noctivaqans  H.  ALLEN*.    Monog.  N.  A.  Bats.,  1864. 

J.  A.  ALLEN.    Cat.  Chir.,  1869. 

Vespertilio  (Vesperides)  noctivagans  COUES.    Surv.  100th  Mer.  Zool.,  1875. 
Lasionycteris  noctivagans  DOBSON.    Cat.  Mam.,  Mass.,  1878. 

Never  having  seen  a  specimen  of  the  silvery-haired  bat  from 
Minnesota,  I  simply  quote  the  description  given  in  Allen's 
monograph : 

"Head  flat,  broad  and  moderately  haired;  snout  naked;  nos- 
trils wide  apart,  and  opening  sublaterally;  space  between 
emarginate.  Sides  of  face  slightly  swollen.  The  auricle  is  an 
irregular  oval.  The  inner  border  extends  upwards  and  in- 
wards to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  head,  and  then  turns  up- 
wards and  outwards,  ending  in  an  obtuse  point.  The  outer 
border  is  smooth,  and  terminates  inferiorly  and  internally  in  a 
thin  ridge  near  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  lower  half  of  this 
border  folds  irregularly  upon  itself,  and  bends  so  markedly 
inwards  as  to  touch  the  tragus.  The  tragus  is  straight  inter- 
nally, strongly  and  abruptly  convex  externally,  narrow  at  its 
base.  It  is  but  one -third  the  hight  of  the  auricle,  and  nearly 
as  broad  as  high.  Skin  of  face  and  ears  blackish,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  internal  basal  lobe  of  the  latter,  which  is  whitish. 
Fur  long  and  silky,  with  a  marked  tendency  to  become  black, 
and  in  many  specimens  the  extreme  tip  of  each  hair  is  the  only 
part  possessing  a  different  hue — it  being  pale  gray  or  white. 
The  fur  is  thicker  on  the  back  than  in  front,  but  the  coloration 
is  very  similar.  The  posterior  part  of  the  interfemoral  mem- 
brane is  thinly  covered  with  short  dark  colored  hairs;  the  an- 
terior surface  has  upon  it  numerous  minute  tufts  arranged 
linearly.  Thumb  small,  foot  moderate. 

Dentition  i.  f,  c.  i,  ra.  f  x2=36. 

Upper  incisors  closely  approximate  to  but  not  touching  ca- 
nines, nearly  of  the  same  length;  median  pair  bifid,  twisted  on 
their  axes  so  that  the  two  cusps  have  a  somewhat  antero-pos- 
terior  arrangement;  internal  cusp  slightly  longer.  Lateral 
pair  unicuspid  with  a  basal  cusp.  Canines  simple  and  moderate. 
First  premolar  very  small,  unicuspid,  second  premolar  with  a 
very  long  external  and  short  internal  cusp. 

In  the  lower  jaw  the  incisors  are  not  crowded,  trifid.  Three 
premolars,  of  which  the  second  is  smallest. 


36  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

GENUS  VESPERTILIO 

The  generic  term  as  thus  restricted  includes  such  bats  as, 
having  four  upper  and  six  lower  incisors,  have  also  six  molars 
above  and  below  on  either  side,  or  38  teeth  in  all,  thus:  i.  f, 
c.  },  m.  |x2=38.  Wings  and  ears  thinner  than  in  the  preced- 
ing; skull  less  heavy,  cranial  portion  inflated,  upper  outline 
concave. 

Yespertilio  subulatus  SAY. 

LITTLE  BROWN   BAT. 

Vespertilio  subulatus  SAY.    Long's  Exped.   Rocky  Mts.,  1832. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825. 

RICHARDSON.    Fauna  Bor.  Amer.,  1829. 

GODMAN.    Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  1831. 

COOPER.    Ann.  Lye.  N.  Y.,  1837. 

DEKAY.    Nat.  Hist.  N.  Y.,  1842. 

WAGNER.    Schreb.,  Saug.,  1855. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila.,  1855. 

H.  ALLEN.    Monog.  Bats  N.  A.,  1864. 

J.  A.  ALLEN.    Cat.  Mam.  Mass.,  1869. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 

COUES  AND  YARROW.    Surv.  100th  Mer.  Zool.,  1875. 

DOBSON.    Cat.  Chir.  B.  M.,  1878. 
Vespertilio  californicus  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Phila.  Acad.,  1842. 

PEALE.    U.  S.  Expl.  Exped.,  1858. 
Vespertilio  caroli  TEMMINCK.    Monogr.  Mam.,  1835. 

WAGNER.    Schreb.  Saug.,  1855. 
Vespertilio  domesticus  GREEN.    Cab.  Nat.  Hist. 
Vespertilio  evotis  H.  ALLEN.    Monogr.  Bats  N.  A.,  1864. 
Vespertilio  lucifugus  LECONTE.    Cuv.  An.  King.,  1831. 

MAX  V.  WIED.    Verzeich.  Beobach.  Sftug.  N.  A.  1860. 

H.  ALLEN.    Monog.  N.  A.  Bats,  1864. 

This  is  our  commonest  species  and  is  familar  to  every  one. 
The  body  is  very  compact  and  the  fur  dense  and  soft.  The 
head  is  mouse-like,  and  expression  hightened  by  the  long, 
rather  acute  ears. 

Color  above,  dark  olive  brown,  tips  of  hairs  being  yellowish: 
below,  olive  gray,  vared  with  whitish  and  yellowish.  Lips, 
muzzle  and  top  of  nose  nearly  naked,  vibrissse  abundant, 
cheeks  warty.  The  membranes  are  black,  the  interfemoral 
portions  being  slightly  hairy.  Ear  elongated,  sub  acute;  tra- 
gus  one-half  its  hight.  The  point  of  the  tail  is  exserted. 

Dentition  i.  f,  c.  \,  m.  fx2=38.  Incisors  of  upper  jaw  in 
pairs  projecting  inward,  small,  bifid.  Two  anterior  premolars 
minute,  the  second  being  smaller. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  37 

Incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  trifid;two  anterior  premolars  very 
small,  the  third  slender. 

Length  to  anus,  1.8;  tail,  1.5;head,  nearly  0.7;  ear  (measured 
from  base  of  opening)  0.6;  (from  base  behind),  0.45;  tragus, 
0.3;  nose  to  eye,  0.3;  width  of  gape,  0.3;  distance  between  nares, 
0.1;  humeral  part  of  arm,  0.9;  radius,  1.5;  thumb,  0.3;  first 
finger,  1.4;  second  finger,  2.4;  third  finger,  2.0;  fourth  finger, 
1.9;  expanse,  over  8.0;  thigh,  0.5;  tibia,  0.75. 

Toes  nearly  equal,  with  short  claws,  slightly  webbed, 
sparsely  hairy  on  the  back. 


38  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 


CHAPTER  III. 
ORDER  INSECTIVORA. 

MOLES  AND  SHREWS. 


FIG.  2.    Macroscelides  typicus,  an  insectivorous  animal  from  Africa. 

In  this  group  we  have  not  only  the  smallest  but  the  oldest  of 
placental  mammals  and  those,  for  many  reasons,  particularly 
interesting  to  naturalists.  Our  most  familiar  representatives 
of  the  Insectivora  are  very  mouse-like  in  appearance  and  to  the 
natural  association  so  brought  about  is  due  the  persistent  and 
reasonless  persecution  which  they  suffer  at  the  hands  of  the 
farmer.  The  external  resemblance  is  in  this  case,  as  so  often, 
quite  misleading.  In  habits  and  structure  the  Insectivora  are 
more  like  bats  than  the  mice. 

In  the  words  of  Carl  Vogt,  '  'One  may,  indeed,  say  with  truth 
that  they  continue  on  and  under  the  earth,  yes,  and  even  in  the 
water,  the  persistent  hunt  for  insects,  snails,  and  all  possible 
vermin  begun  by  the  bats  in  the  air. "  The  largest  animal  of 
the  group  is  little  larger  than  a  squirrel  while  the  external 
form  varies  greatly.  Some  species  are  adapted  solely  to  a  sub- 
terranean existence,  and  by  the  great  development  of  the  ante- 
rior extremities  and  the  reduction  of  the  sense  of  vision  are 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  39 

unfitted  for  any  other  life;  others  climb  freely  like  squirrels; 
again  others  pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  water,  and  exhibit 
consequent  changes  in  structure;  while  still  other  species  have 
the  elongated  hind  legs  of  the  deer  mice,  and  are  truly  terres- 
trial. Organs  of  sense  vary  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  these  various  situations.  The  brain  indicates  a  lower 
condition  of  the  nervous  system  than  in  any  other  group  of 
placental  mammals.  The  hemispheres  do  not  cover  the  cere- 
bellum nor  even  the  corpus  bigeminum.  The  simple  structure 
of  the  brain  corresponds  to  an  incompletely  developed  brain- 
case,  for  not  only  is  the  zygoma  often  entirely  absent,  but  the 
orbit  is  never  closed,  and  the  whole  configuration  of  the  skull 
is  upon  a  primitive  type. 

The  dentition  corresponds  to  no  other  group,  neither  do  th'e 
different  genera  conform  to  any  common  formula.  The  canines 
are  absent  (save  in  one  case)  or  are  replaced  by  teeth  which 
have  no  resemblance  to  the  canines  of  other  animals.  Their 
place  is  frequently  taken  by  a  pair  of  the  incisors.  Anatomists 
are  not  agreed  as  to  the  homologies  of  the  various  teeth.  Fol- 
lowing the  incisors  are  premolars  with  pointed  crowns,  and 
following  them  square  crowned  molars,  which  are  also  armed 
with  from  three  to  four  saliences.  The  dentition  is  well  adap- 
ted to  the  catching  and  comminution  of  insects  and  Crustacea. 
The  oldest  known  fossil  mammals  (from  the  Triassic)  had  a 
dentition  resembling  the  Insectivora  and,  although  they  may 
have  been  insectivorous  marsupials,  the  suggestion  lies  near 
that  our  present  Insectivora  are  descendants,  very  little  altered, 
of  a  very  numerous  group  which  early  separated  from  the 
common  mammalian  stem.  Undoubted  remains  of  insectivor- 
ous animals  occur  in  the  Eocene  of  America  and  Prance,  and 
thence  onward  continue  to  appear  with  more  and  more  definite 
affinities  to  existing  forms. 

The  geographical  distribution  confirms  the  indications  of 
paleontology.  The  group  is  widely  distributed,  but  is  never- 
theless absent  from  South  America  (or  nearly  so)  and  also  from 
Australia.  Each  principal  continent  has  its  endemic  types 
(families  or  genera),  and  even  Madagascar  has  its  peculiar 
forms.  The  Antilles  also  have  their  own  family  of  Insectivora. 
Again  Europe  and  Asia  support  the  hedge -hog  family,  which 
is  entirely  excluded  from  America.  In  the  two  continents  rich 
in  marsupials  (Australia  and  South  America),  there  are  as  yet 
no  Insectivora.  In  places  which  have  been  long  isolated  (Mad- 
agascar and  the  Antilles),  special  types  have  grownup,  while 


40  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

upon  the  larger  continents  the  differentiation  has  been  less  one- 
sided. Paleontology  also  shows  that  the  various  families  of 
Insectivora  early  became  distinct. 

The  families  are  at  present,  therefore,  remarkably  compact 
and  sharply  defined.  Some  of  the  largest  species  are  found  in 
the  Indian  family  Tupaiidce.  These  animals  resemble  squirrels 
in  outward  form  and  size  and  climb  well,  searching  for  insects 
in  their  leafy  retreats.  The  snout  is  long  and  shrew  like,  but 
the  eyes  are  more  highly  developed  than  in  most  Insectivora. 

The  Macroscelidce  (see  fig.  2)  are  deceptively  like  the  kanga- 
roo mice.  These  jumping  shrews  inhabit  sandy  and  rocky 
wastes  of  Africa,  and  not  only  root  among  the  rocks  for  larvae 
but  even  spring  after  flying  sorts  with  great  accuracy. 

The  Myogalidce  are  aquatic  Insectivora.  The  various  species 
live  in  the  rivers  of  eastern  Europe,  of  Asia  and  parts  of 
Africa.  Leeches,  fresh  water  mollusks,  and  larvae  as  well  as 
possibly  the  fry  of  fishes,  serve  Myogale  for  food.  Anal 
glands  give  to  these  animals  a  most  offensive  odor. 

The  Soricidce  (shrews)  include  mouse-like  species  which  may 
be  considered  as  the  type  of  the  Insectivora.  Their  geographi- 
cal distribution  is  most  extensive  among  the  families  of  this 
group  and  together  with  the  moles  (Talpidce)  form  the  only 
families  found  in  North  America. 

Madagascar  furnishes  a  family  of  Insectivora  somewhat  like 
the  hedge-hogs  but  uniting  with  this  habitus  characters  of  the 
shrews  and  jumping  shrews.  Centetidce,  as  the  family  is  called, 
contains  two  genera  of  similar  character.  The  true  hedge- 
hogs (Erinaceidce)  occupy  parts  of  the  old  world.  It  is  very 
common  to  hear  our  rodent  porcupines  called  hedge-hogs. 
The  two  animals  have  nothing  in  common  but  the  spiny 
armature.  The  hedge-hog  is  very  useful  to  the  European 
farmer  on  account  of  the  constant  war  he  wages  with  rats  and 
mice,  which,  in  spite  of  seeming  awkwardness  he  skillfully 
captures.  Birds'  nests  and  fruit  trees  form  a  secondary  re- 
course. They  may  be  easily  domesticated  to  a  certain  extent 
and  yet  could  hardly  be  considered  desirable  pets. 

The  subterranean  Insectivora  fall  into  two  related  families, 
the  one  represented  by  the  blind  mole  (Chrysochloris)  of  South 
Africa,  the  other  by  our  familiar  moles.  The  Talpidce  of  Am- 
erica belong  to  different  genera  from  the  European  but  are 
nevertheless  very  familiar. 

The  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Insectivora  is 
very  low,  for  the  attempts  to  distinguish  species  upon  variable 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  41 

superficial  characters  with  no  reference  to  tangible  anatomical 
distinctions  has  multiplied  synonyms  to  such  an  extent  that  no 
person  can  ever  disentangle  the  synonomy.  At  present  we  can 
form  only  very  vague  ideas  as  to  the  actual  number  of  species 
in  several  genera.  As  far  as  the  systematic  study  is  concerned, 
all  that  has  thus  far  been  written  is  so  much  profitless  lumber 
and  might  best  be  ignored.  Facts  regarding  the  habits,  anat- 
my  and  geographical  distribution,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of 
permanent  and  immediate  value. 

In  November,  1883,  the  writer  lay  encamped  under  the  canopy 
of  the  sky  in  Pine  Co.,  Minnesota,  endeavoring  to  escape  the 
chill  of  the  frosty  air  by  drawing  the  blanket  close  and  hover- 
ing nearer  the  camp  fire.  To  a  person  alone  in  the  woods  for 
the  first  time  after  a  long  interval  every  sound  is  novel  and 
more  or  less  charged  with  mystery.  The  wind  stirred  the  tree 
tops  and  impinging  boughs  clattered  and  the  trunks  groaned 
under  the  tortion,  each  tree  with  its  own  doleful  note.  The 
few  remaining  pines  added  their  sighing  to  the  many  melan- 
choly sounds  belonging  to  an  autumn  forest  at  night.  But 
amid  all  the  sounds  nothing  could  be  identified  as  coming  from 
anything  living,  even  the  distant  howling  of  wolves  was 
silenced,  and  I  began  to  feel  that  the  attempt  to  gain  personal 
knowledge  of  the  ways  of  woodsy  mammals  by  night  study 
would  prove  futile,  and  composed  myself  to  sleep.  The  half- 
somnolent  re  very  which  forms  the  prelude  to  slumber,  was 
broken  by  faint  melodious  sounds  on  an  excessively  high  key — 
so  high  that  it  seemed  that  I  might  be  simply  hearing  the 
lower  notes  of  an  elfin  symphony  the  upper  registers  in  which 
were  beyond  the  powers  of  human  ears  to  distinguish.  The 
sounds  were  distinctly  musical  and  reminded  me  of  the  con- 
tented twitter  of  birds  finding  resting  places  among  the  boughs 
at  night.  Without  moving  I  turned  my  eyes  upon  the  fire-lit 
circle,  about  which  the  darkness  formed  an  apparently  impen- 
trable  wall.  Only  the  most  careful  scrutiny  enabled  me  to  dis- 
cover the  tiny  musicians.  Within  a  few  feet  of  my  head,  upon 
a  decayed  log,  raced  a  pair  of  shrews  (S.  cooperi),  so  minute  as 
to  escape  my  observation  at  first.  Up  and  down  with  the  most 
sprightly  imaginable  motions  they  ran,  twittering  incessantly. 
Hither  and  thither  they  scampered  over  my  clothing  and  almost 
into  my  pockets,  like  veritable  lilliputians,  siezing  now  a 
crumb  of  cheese,  with  which  my  traps  were  baited,  and  now  a 
bit  of  fish  fallen  from  my  improvised  supper  table.  During 
the  eating  the  conversation  was  not  interrupted.  The  little 

-3 


42  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

visitors  were  not  bashful  about  criticising  the  housekeeping  of 
their  host,  if  their  apparent  amusement  can  thus  be  interpreted, 
but  it  was  a  most  good  humored  little  party  nevertheless  which 
thus  unceremoniously  ransacked  my  larder.  The  party  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  merriment,  until  I  was  almost  forced 
to  believe  myself  an  uninvited  guest  within  the  magic  circle 
of  Queen  Mab's  domain.  I  watched  with  interest  the  result 
of  their  intrusion  into  the  traps  which  stood  about  for  the 
capture  of  any  red-backed  mouse  that  might  invade  my  camp, 
but  Sorex  passed  entirely  within,  and  daintily  arching  his  back 
contentedly  nibbled  the  cheese,  and  when  the  spring  rose 
usually  suffered  but  a  short  fright,  and  returned  to  finish  the 
interrupted  meal.  Canned  fish  seemed  to  be  more  acceptable 
than  any  other  food  I  had  to  offer.  Tiring  of  the  watching,  I 
again  lay  down  to  sleep,  during  which  time  elfin  voices  sounded 
in  my  dreams.  About  midnight  one  of  the  little  imps  sprang 
across  my  face  in  so  violent  a  way  as  to  partially  waken  me, 
and  thus,  as  good  fortune  had  it,  I  was  awake  sufficiently  to 
recognize  the  meaning  of  a  sharp  crack  overhead  and  sprang 
out  of  my  bed  in  time  to  see  it  occupied  by  a  massive  tree-trunk 
which  the  fire  had  burned  off  not  far  from  the  ground. 

The  short-tailed  shrew  was  seen  during  the  progress  of  these 
investigations  but  seldom.  While  riding  through  a  densely 
wooded  portion  of  northwestern  Hennepin  county,  near  lake 
Independence,  a  small  animal  was  seen  running  in  an  uncertain 
way  across  the  road  ;  a  hasty  pursuit  resulted  in  its  capture, 
although  in  an  imperfect  condition.  It  thus  seems  certain  that 
this  shrew  is  not  strictly  nocturnal.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
smaller  shrews.  They  seem  to  rely  more  largely  upon  the 
sense  of  smell  than  that  of  vision,  and  are  measurably  inde- 
pendent of  light  in  carrying  on  their  search  for  insects.  The 
smaller  shrews  were  formerly  abundant  about  Minneapolis, 
and  their  runways  under  the  slight  crust  of  a  new  snow,  were 
everywhere  encountered.  It  is  certain  that  they  endure  the 
rigors  of  our  severe  winters  well.  Of  late  we  have  been  unable 
to  secure  many  specimens,  perhaps  owing  to  the  abundance  of 
cats,  which,  I  dare  say,  do  not  make  any  fine  zoological  distinc- 
tions before  dinner. 

In  the  American  Naturalist  (vol.  vii,  p.  483),  Mr.  G.  Linceum 
gives  a  graphic  account  of  the  habits  of  a  species  of  Sorex 
from  Long  Point,  Texas,  a  part  of  which  I  quote  : 

'  *  They  dwell  in  warm  nests  made  of  grass,  about  the  fences 
or  edges  of  the  prairie.  They  do  not  come  about  houses,  and 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  43 

are  purely  nocturnal.  I  have  found  only  three  nests  of  them. 
They  have  four  young  at  a  time,  which  they  nurse  and  care  for 
most  affectionately.  I  had  a  family  of  them  and  fed  them  a 
week  where  I  could  observe  all  their  actions.  I  had  a  father 
and  mother  and  their  half  grown  offspring.  The  male  made 
his  escape,  and  finding  a  newly  married  pair — they  do  marry, 
and  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  stick  together  as  long  ss  they  live— 

I  put  them  in  a  box  with  my  half  civilized  family.     The  male 
instantly  caught  a  young  one  and  was  aiming  to  kill  it,  when  I 
put  him  and  his  companion  into  an  empty  oyster  can,  and  set- 
ting it  back  in  the  box,  went  to  supper.     When  I  returned  I 
found  that  the  ferocious,  rascally  male  had  made  shift  to  get 
out  of  the  can,  and  had  murdered  all  the  young  ones." 

*FAMILY  SORICID^. 

Animals  intermediate  bet  weens  the  moles  and  hedge -hogs, 
and  characterized  by  attenuated  movable  snout,  plantigrade, 
hairless  soles,  abscence  of  zygoma,  and  imperfect  auditory  cap- 

*The  following  brief  review  of  the  described  species  may  assist  the  student  in 
securing  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  groups  than  can  be  given  here. 

1.  Genus  Gymnura.    A  single  species  (G.  refflesii)  is  as  large  as  a  large  squirrel,  and  has 

a  long  snout,  short  tail  and  small  ears,  retractile  claws  and  wooly  hair.  This 
interesting  species  inhabits  the  Sunda  and  adjacent  islands. 

2.  Genus  Pardoxodon  is  represented  by  a  pigmy,  not  two  inches  long,  from  Bengal. 

3.  Genus  Pachyura.    A  large  genus  of  shrew-like  animals,  some  of  which  are  over  ten 

inches  long,  others  less  than  two,  living  in  India,  southern  Europe,  Madagascar 
and  Egypt.  Specimens  of  the  Egyptian  species  have  been  found  mummied  in  the 
tombs.  Nearly  thirty  species  have  been  described,  many  of  which  are  synonyms. 

4.  Genus  Crocidura.    Some  twenty-five  nominal  species  are  distributed  from  the  cape 

of  Good  Hope  to  India,  Ceylon  and  Japan.  C.  aranea  is  a  common  species  in 
Europe,  often  entering  houses,  and  having  much  the  aspect  of  a  small  mouse. 

5.  Genus  Diplornesodon.    A  single  species  of  minute  size  and  peculiar  coloration,  inhab- 

its the  sandy  steppes  of  Kirgisen. 

6.  Genus  Feroculus.    A  somewhat  doubtful  genus,  founded  on  a  single  collection  made 

In  Ceylon,  and  intermediate  between  Crocidura  and  Myoxorex. 

7.  Genus  Mysorex.    Small  shrews,  with  the  ears  entirely  concealed,  living  in   South 

Africa. 

8.  Genus  Sorex.    The  type  of  the  family  is  found  in  Europe  and  America,  though  it  is 

customary  to  separate  the  species  into  subgenera,  or  even  different  genera,  to 
correspond  with  the  difference  in  habitat.  The  genus  seems,  however,  to  be 
circumpolar. 

9.  Genus  Blarina.    North  American,  with  but  one  well  authenticated  species,  though 

many  have  been  found. 
10.  Genus  Soriculus.    A  single  Indian  species,  with  but  thirty  teeth. 

II  Genus  Crossopus.    This  genus  of  aquatic  shrews  is  circumpolar,  although  the  North 

American  species  has  been  separated  as  a  distinct  genus,  Neosorex.  Two  or  more 
extremely  variable  species  are  rather  common  in  Europe,  and  others  in  Asia  to 
Japan. 

12.  Genus  Solenodon  contains  the  curious  rat-like  S.  paradoxus  of  Cuba. 

13.  Genus  Myogale  contains  aquatic  forms,  with  vertically  flattened  tails.  Some  species 

are  upwards  of  ten  inches  long,  with  a  tail  nearly  as  long  again.  Europe  and 
Asia  are  the  habitat  of  these  musk-shrews. 

Sines  writing  the  above  a  new  genus  and  species  of  shrew  has  been  brought  to  our 
notice  by  C.  Hart  Merriam:    Genus  atophyrax.     A.  hendirii  Mer.  is  from  Klamath 


44  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

suli.  A  peculiar  musky  fluid  is  secreted  especially  during  the 
rut.  The  eyes  are  small  but  functional,  and  the  other  senses 
acute.  The  voice  is  pitched  upon  a  high  key,  but  musical. 

GENUS  BLARINA. 

Shrews  of  a  dark  color  and  mole-like  pelage,  the  tail  being 
short  and  hairy. 

Dentition  :  i,  },  c.  $,  pm.  -f,  m.  |x2=32,  (adult),  or  i,  }, 
c.  -§-,  pm.  -J,  m.  fx2=30  (immature.) 


Blarina  breyicaudata  SAY. 

THE  SHORT-TAILED  SHREW. 

Sorex  brevicaudatus  SAY.    Long's  Expedition,  I,  p.  164,  1823. 

HHRLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  p.  29,  1825. 

ISID.  GEOFFROY.    Diet.  Class.  V,  XI,  p.  320. 

GODMAN.    Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  I,  1831. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis  Mam.,  p.  255. 

BACHMAN.    Jour.  Phil.  Acad.,  VII,  1837. 

EMMONS.    Quad.  Mass.,  p.  13,  1840. 

AUD.  and  BACH.    Quad.  N.  A.,  V.  Ill,  p.  335. 

DEKAY.    Zool.  N.  York,  V,  I,  p.  18.  1842. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugethiere,  Suppl. 

LINSLEY.    Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  XLIII,  1842. 

THOMPSON.    Hist.  Vermont,  JS42. 

PLUMBER.    Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  XLVI. 
Blarina  brevicaudata  BAIUD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1837. 

SAMUELS.    Agr.  Mass.,  1861. 

Brachyosorex  brevicaudatus  DUVERN.  GQERM.    Mag.  d.  Zool.,  1842. 
•  WAGNER.    Schreb.  Sauget.,  Suppl. 

FITZINGER.    Kritische  Untersuchungen,  Sitzb.  d.  k.  Akad., 

1868. 
Sorex  talpoides  GAPPER.    Zool.  Journ.  V,  1830. 

REICHENB.    Naturg.  Raubth. 

GIEBEL.    Saugethiere. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugeth.,  Suppl.  II. 
Corsira  talpoides  GRAY.    Proc  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1837. 
Blarina  talpoides  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 

GRAY.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc  Lond.,  1837. 

SAMUELS.    Agr.  Mass.,  1861. 

VERRILL.    Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1863. 
Amphisorex  talpoides  GIEBEL.    Saugethiere,  p.  901. 

Basin  Ore.,  and  seems  to  be  paludial  in  habit.  It  possesses  characters  allying  it  with 
Neosorex,  but  it  agrees  with  Sorex  in  the  number  Of  teeth.  The  only  known  species  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  true  American  shrews.  (See  Trans.  Linnsean  Society  of  N.  Y.» 
vol.  ii,  1884.) 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


45 


Sorex parvus  SAY.    Long's  Expedition,  I. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer. 

BACHMAN.    Journ.  Phila.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  VII. 

LINSLEY.    Am.  Journ.  Sci ,  XLIII. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis  Mam. 

RICHARDS.    Fauna  Bor.  Amer. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugeth. 

REICHENB.    Naturg.  Raubth. 

DE  KAY.    Fauna,  N.  Y. 

AUD.  aud  BACH.    Quad.  N.  A. 
Brachyosorex parvus  WA«NER.    Schreb,  Saugeth. 

FITZINGER.    Kritische  Untersuch. 
Sorex  dekoyi  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Phila.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  VII. 

DE  KAY.    Fauna,  N.  Y. 

LINSLEY.    Am.  Journ.  Sci.  XXXIX. 

REICHENB.    Naturg.  Raubth. 

AUD.  and  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugeth. 
Brachyosorex  dekayi  WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugeth. 

FITZINGER.    Kritische  Untersuch. 
Sorex  cinereus  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Phila.  VII. 

REICHENB.    Naturg.  Raubth. 

DE  KAY.    Zool.  of  N.  Y. 

WAGNER.    Schreb.  Saugeth. 
Croddura  cinerea  REICHENR.     Naturg.  Raubth. 
Blarina  cinerea  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 
Blarina  carolinensis  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 
Blarina  angusticeps  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 
Blarina  exilipes  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 
Blarina  berlandieri  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 


FIG.  3.    BLARINA  BKEV1CAPDATA. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  of  synonymy  that  the 
writer  fully  coincides  with  the  opinion,  expressed  by  Mr.  J.  A. 
Allen,  in  his  paper  on  the  Mammalia  of  Massachusetts  (Bui. 
No.  8.  Mus.  Com  p.  Zool.,  Cambridge),  that  there  is  no  evidence 


46  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

of  the  existence  of  more  than  a  single  species  of  Blarina  It 
seems,  on  the  other  hand,  very  probable  that  there  is  but  one 
somewhat  variable  species,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  Mexico  to  northern  Canada  and  Behring's 
straits.  This  species  is  moderately  abundant  about  Minneapolis. 

The  following  measurements  may  be  taken  as  indicating  the 
average  size  :  Body  and  head,  3.50  ;  tail,  .85 — 1.00  ;  hind  foot, 
.64  ;  forefoot,  .44.  A  male,  somewhat  larger,  had  a  tail  meas- 
uring 1.08  ;  the  hind  foot,  .65  ;  nose  to  eye,  .50  ;  nose  to  tip  of 
incisors,  .30. 

The  short-tailed  shrews  are  more  mole-like  in  appearance 
than  the  smaller  species,  both  on  account  of  their  low  form  and 
short  tail,  and  the  dark  mole-like  pelage.  The  color  is  dark 
plumbeous  above,  with  a  somewhat  glossy  reflection.  The  hairs 
are  fine.  The  lower  parts  are  lighter  and  with  rusty  or  rufous 
gloss.  The  whiskers  are  numerous,  fine  and  light-colored. 
The  head  is  rather  stout  and  short,  and  in  this  respect  differs 
to  a  marked  degree  from  the  smaller  shrews.  The  head  is 
also  much  depressed,  and  the  eyes  lie  nearly  half  way  between 
the  muzzle  and  the  back  of  the  head.  The  muzzle  is  not  nearly 
as  long  as  in  Sorex,  and  is  truncated  and  naked  with  the  nostrils 
opening  on  the  sides.  The  ear  is  not  seen  in  life,  although  it  is 
large,  because  the  meatus  is  closed  by  the  auricle.  The  anti- 
tragus  and  antihelix  are  well  developed  and  valvular.  The 
palm  has  five  callosities,  the  sole  six.  The  tail  is  constricted 
at  the  base,  and  expands  suddenly,  after  which  it  is  of  uniform 
size  until  near  the  end  ;  it  is  but  moderately  hairy,  although 
bearing  a  considerable  pencil  at  the  tip.  The  upper  surface  of 
the  feet  is  minutely  hairy.  The  third  toe  is  longest. 

It  would  perhaps  be  expected  that  the  size  of  southern  speci- 
mens would  be  less  than  those  farther  north,  and  this  may 
explain  "  B.  carolinensis"  of  authors,  in  the  specific  characters 
of  which  the  only  tangible  point  seems  to  be  the  inferior  size. 
B.  angusticeps  must  be  regarded,  until  farther  information  is 
obtained,  as  an  illustration  of  an  extreme  instance  of  individual 
variation,  such  as  may  be  occasionally  met  with  in  any  species. 

The  specimen  figured  above  was  obtained  in  Ohio,  March  4th, 
and  is  one  of  several  seen  at  about  the  same  time.  The  meas- 
urements are  as  follows  : 

Length  of  body,  3.1 ;  tail,  0.9  ;  total,  4.0  ;  hind  foot,  0.48  ;  fore 
foot,  0.39  ;  nose  to  eye,  0.41 ;  nose  to  ear,  0.80  ;  vibrissse,  0.70. 

Color  uniform  plumbeous  black,  without  gloss,  but  perfectly 
dead  and  homogeneous  everywhere  except  upon  the  feet,  which 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  47 

are  reddish  brown.  Tail  nearly  glabrous  at  the  base,  but  ter- 
minating in  a  considerable  pencil  of  hairs.  First  and  fifth  toes 
of  fore  foot  as  are  the  second  and  fourth,  these  being  much 
longer  than  the  former,  third  toe  longest.  Claws  of  the  fore 
foot  much  longer  than  those  of  hind  foot.  Hind  foot  broad, 
fifth  toe  somewhat  longer  than  first ;  second,  third  and  fourth 
toes  subequal. 

When  captured  the  shrews  are  very  likely  to  be  devoured  by 
their  companions,  and  it  is  frequently  very  difficult  to  secure 
unmutilated  specimens  on  this  account.  Dr.  Merriam  gives 
the  results  of  experiments  upon  the  present  species,  as  follows: 

"Having  caught •  a  vigorous  though  undersized  shrew,  I  put 
him  in  a  large  wooden  box,  and  provided  him  with  an  ample 
supply  of  beechnuts,  which  he  ate  greedily.  He  was  also  fur- 
nished with  a  saucer  of  water,  from  which  he  frequently  drank. 
After  he  had  remained  two  days  in  these  quarters,  I  placed  in 
the  box  with  him  an  uninjured  and  very  active  white-footed 
mouse.  The  shrew  at  the  time  weighed  10. 20  grammes,  while 
the  mouse,  which  was  a  large  adult  male,  weighed  just  17 
grammes.  No  sooner  did  the  shrew  become  aware  of  the  pres- 
ence of  the  mouse  than  he  gave  chase.  The  mouse,  though 
much  larger  than  the  shrew,  showed  no  disposition  to  fight, 
and  his  superior  agility  enabled  him,  for  a  long  time,  easily  to 
evade  his  pursuer,  for  at  a  single  leap  he  would  pass  over  the 
latter's  head  and  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond.  The  shrew 
labored  under  a  great  disadvantage,  not  only  from  his  inability 
to  keep  pace  with  the  mouse,  but  also  to  a  still  greater  extent, 
from  his  defective  eyesight.  He  frequently  passed  within  two 
inches  (31  mm. )  of  the  mouse  without  knowing  his  where- 
abouts. But  he  was  persistent,  and  explored  over  and  over 
again  every  part  of  the  box,  constantly  putting  the  mouse 
to  flight.  Indeed,  it  was  by  sheer  perseverance  that  he  so 
harassed  the  mouse  that  the  latter,  fatigued  by  almost  con- 
tinuous exertion,  and  also  probably  weakened  by  fright,  was 
no  longer  able  to  escape.  He  was  first  caught  by  the  tail  ;  this 
proved  a  temporary  stimulant,  and  he  bounded  several  times 
across  the  box,  dragging  his  adversary  with  him.  The  shrew 
did  not  seem  in  the  least  disconcerted  at  thus  being  harshly 
jerked  about  his  domicile,  but  continued  his  pursuit  with  great 
determination.  He  next  seized  the  mouse  in  its  side,  which 
resulted  in  a  rough  and  tumble,  the  two  rolling  over  and  over 
and  biting  each  other  with  much  energy.  The  mouse  freed 
himself,  but  was  so  exhausted  that  the  shrew  had  no  difficulty 


48  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

in  keeping  alongside,  and  soon  had  him  by  the  ear.  The  mouse 
rolled  and  kicked  and  scratched  and  bit,  but  to  no  avail.  The 
shrew  was  evidently  much  pleased,  and  forthwith  began  to 
devour  the  ear.  When  he  had  it  about  half  eaten  off  the  mouse 
again  tore  himself  free  ;  but  his  inveterate  little  foe  did  not 
suffer  him  to  escape.  This  time  the  shrew  clambered  up  over 
his  back,  and  was  soon  at  work  consuming  the  remainder  of 
the  ear.  This  being  satisfactorily  accomplished,  he  continued 
to  push  on  in  the  same  direction,  till  he  had  cut  through  the 
skull,  and  eaten  the  brains,  together  with  the  whole  side  of  the 
head  and  part  of  the  shoulder.  This  completed  his  first  meal. 
As  soon  as  he  had  finished  eating  I  placed  him  upon  the  scales, 
and  found  that  he  weighed  exactly  12  grammes — an  increase  of 
.80  gramme." 

Sorex  cooperi  BACHMAN. 

COOPER'S  SHREW. 

Sorex  cooperi  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Sci.,  Phila.  VII. 

REICHENB.    Naturg.  Raubth. 

DEKAY.    Zool.ofN.  Y. 

AUD.  and  BACH.    Quad.  N.  A. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugeth.    B.  V.  Suppl. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 

FITZINGER.    Kritische  Untersuch. 

ALLEN.    Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  No.  8. 
Croddura  cooperi  REICHENB.    ISTaturg.  Raubth. 
Amphisorex  lesueri  DUVERNOY.    Mag.  de  Zool.,  1842. 
Sorex  lesueri  WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreber.    Saugeth.  Y. 

Although  the  synonyms  quoted  above,  refer  to  the  western 
form,  which  constitutes  the  species  in  its  strictest  sense,  as 
understood  by  Prof.  Baird,  the  author  is  greatly  inclined  to 
believe  that  at  least  S.  haydeni,  and  probably  several  other 
species  given  in  the  mammals  of  North  America,  are  really 
varieties  of  the  present  species.  Not  having  material  for  com- 
parison of  this  with  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  a  brief  description  of  the  only  Sorex  yet 
encountered  in  Minnesota.  The  specimens  examined  in  Minne- 
sota were  remarkably  uniform  in  size.  Average  measurements 
are  as  follows  :  Length,  3.50  ;  tail,  1.72  ;  head  and  body,  1.78  ; 
hind  foot,  about  0. 50. 

Sorex  platyrhinus,  the  common  eastern  species,  has  not  been 
detected  in  Minnesota. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  49 

Neosorex  palustris  is  an  aquatic  species  found  rarely  in  New 
England,  which  may  be  expected  here.  I  have  noticed  on  sev- 
eral occasions  burrows  and  tracks  leading  to  the  water's  edge, 
with  small  gasteropod  mollusk  shells  scattered  about  in  such  a 
way  as  to  lead  one  to  suspect  the  presence  of  an  aquatic  insec- 
tivorous animal,  but  all  efforts  failed  to  secure  specimens. 

FAMILY  TALPIDJE,  MOLES. 

The  moles  proper  are  easily  distinguished,  and  constitute  a 
natural  and  compact  group.  The  genera  are  few  and  widely 
distributed,  and  although  a  rather  large  number  of  nominal 
species  have  been  formed  on  superficial  characters,  the  vari- 
ability is  sufficient  to  reduce  them  to  very  few  distinct  specific 
types.  It  is  strange  that  naturalists  should  be  surprised  to  find 
in  animals  only  rarely  seen,  and  then  under  exceptional  condi- 
tions, the  same  variation  which  is  everywhere  observed  in  our 
familiar  species,  and  yet  every  slight  variation  in  color  and 
proportions,  has  been  seized  as  a  reason  for  creating  a  new 
species  in  this  family. 

In  appearance  the  moles  resemble  the  shrews  in  several 
respects,  but  there  could  hardly  be  found  a  more  striking 
diversity  of  habit  than  that  furnished  by  the  active,  vivacious, 
social  and  terrestrial  shrew,  and  the  clumsy  fossorial  hermit 
whose  disposition  seems  as  crabbed  as  any  one's  should  be, 
immured  by  caprice  in  damp,  endless  labyrinths. 

The  head  is  very  large  and  elongated,  terminating  in  a  slen- 
der, generally  flattened  proboscis,  in  which  the  nostrils  open 
upward.  The  eyes  are  minute,  and  are  either  concealed  in  the 
pelage  or  are  entirely  covered  by  the  skin.  The  shoulder  is 
enormously  developed,  while  the  arm  is  greatly  shortened  and 
bears  an  enormous  shovel- shaped,  five- toed  manus,  set  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  body,  so  as  to  play  laterally  in  pushing 
the  earth  aside.  The  posterior  part  of  the  body  is  compara- 
tively weak,  and  the  hind  feet  and  tail  small,  the  latter  usually 
naked.  Moles  are  entirely  insectivorous,  and,  except  for  the 
unsightly  mounds  sometimes  made,  and  the  persistency  with 
which  they  at  times  mine  in  cultivated  ground,  should  rank  as 
true  aids  to  the  gardener.  A  deep  seated  prejudice  against 
them  existed  from  early  times,  and  in  the  early  days  of  Europe 
an  official  mole  catcher  formed  one  of  the  stipendiaries  of  a 
well  equipped  manor.  Moles  were  thought  to  have  something 


50  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

uncanny  about  them,  and  figured  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
the  witchcraft  of  the  time. 

The  moles  are  solitary,  except  during  the  breeding  season, 
which  is  a  period  of  unrest  and  ceaseless  quarrels. 

The  fact  that  the  genera  are  restricted  to  the  respective  con- 
tinents where  they  are  found,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
fossorial  habit  is  a  preventive  of  ready  distribution,  and  that 
the  forms  are  endemic.  South  America  is  without  moles,  as 
well  as  other  Insectivora. 

The  geographical  distribution  may  be  gathered  from  the 
brief  systematic  outline  given  below.* 

In  the  moles  the  skull  is  flattened  pyriform  and  shrew-like, 
but  differs  obviously  in  the  possession  of  perfect  zygomatic 
arches  and  enclosed  bony  tympanic  bulla.  There  is  no  distinct 
post-glenoid  process  ;  the  cervical  vertebra  have  no  hypaph- 
ophyses ;  sternum  with  a  strongly  keeled  manubrium  ;  scapula 
narrow,  longer  than  whole  arm  ;  clavicle  very  short ;  humerus 
enormously  enlarged ;  carpus  with  an  os  intermedium,  and 
(usually)  a  sickle-shaped  osseous  support  to  hand.  The  hind 
limb  is  weak. 


*1.  GENUS  UBOTRTCHUS. 

A  single  Japanese  and  Asian  species.  17.  talpoides,  represents  a  genus  having  the 
general  characters  of  the  moles,  except  a  slender  terete  snout  and  a  slender 
bristled  tail.  The  dentition  is  |,  Q,  |,  f  X2=36.  This  is  thought  to  form  a  trans- 
ition toward  Myogale. 

2.  GENUS  CONDYLURA. 

See  above.  FItzinger  in  the  face  of  the  unanimous  authority  of  recent  American 
writers,  recognizes  four  species  on  the  basis  of  seasonal  and  sexual  modification. 

3.  GENUS  SCALOPS. 

Also  see  above.  A  North  American  genus,  with  perhaps  two  closely  allied  species. 
out  of  which  Fitzinger  forms  nine.  The  calm  indifference  with  which  a  European 
author  settles  a  question  of  specific  validity  upon  the  evidence  of  fragmentary, 
conflicting  descriptions  by  hasty  European  travelers,  with  the  possible  help  of 
mouldy,  ill-stuffed  skins  of  doubtful  authenticity,  In  the  face  of  American  stu- 
dents, with  large  accumulations  of  material,  would  be  amusing  if  not  more. 

4.  GENUS  TALPA. 

Fitzinger  recognizes  seven  species  of  this  genus,  whose  type  is  the  common  mole 
of  Europe.  Talpa  eurvpcea. 

Five  named  varieties  of  the  common  mole  indicate  how  variable  such  a  species 
may  be.  and  affords  a  suggestive  commentary  on  the  numerous  species  of  Scalops 
recognized. 

Talpa  coeca  differs  from  T.  europcea  simply  in  the  size  of  the  eye  orifice,  and  is 
usually  considered  identical  with  it.  Two  species  of  this  genus  are  accredited  to 
America  almost  certainly  erroneously,  they  are  T.  nigrofuxca  and  T.  repostn,.  A 
Japanese  species,  T.  wogura,  was  secured  by  Temminck,  and  an  East  Indian, 
T.  micrura,  by  Hodgson,  while  a  very  doubtful  species,  Tleucura  Blyth,  was  described 
by  Blyth  from  farther  India.  It  is  probably  simply  T.  micrura. 

5.  GENUS  CHRYSOCHLORIS. 

The  golden  moles  of  Africa  differ  from  the  above  in  having  but  four  toes  on  the 
fore  foot,  and  lacking  the  tail. 

Of  this  genus  there  seems  to  be  three  or  more  species;  Fitzinger  enumerates  nin«. 

C.  inaurata  (or  C  capensis,  as  it  is  perhaps  properly  called)  occurs  at  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

C.  obtusirostris  is  from  near  Mosambique. 

C.  villosa  from  Port  Natal,  was  first  described  by  A.  Smith  in  1833,  and  specimens 
are  in  the  British  Museum. 

6.  GENUS  SCAPHANUS. 

This  genus  is  closely  related  with  Scalops,  differing  in  dentition  and  the  possess- 
ion of  a  hairy  tail.  The  single  species,  Seapanus  breweri.  is  found  in  the  eastern 
United  States. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 

GENUS  SCALOPS.     Cuv. 


51 


This  genus  includes  American  moles,  in  which  the  nostrils 
are  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  nose,  and  are  not  surrounded 
by  fringing  tentacles,  and  the  teeth  are  36  in  number,  the  two 
upper  anterior  ones  being  very  large. 


Fig,  4.    SCALOPS  AQUATICUS. 


Scalops  aquations  LINN.  SP. 

Sorex  aquaticus  LINN.    Syst.  Nat,  1758. 

ERXLEBEN.    Syst.  Reg.  Anim.,  1771. 

SCHREBER.      Sauget.,  ill. 

BODDAERT.    Elenchus  Anim,  1784. 
GMELIN.    Syst.  Nat.,  1788. 
Talpa  europea  flavescens  ERXLEBEN.    Syst.  Reg.  Anin.,  1777. 

ZIMMERMAN.    Geogr.  Geschicte  d.  Menschen  u.  d.  Thiere. 
SCHREBER.    Silugethiere. 


52  BULLETIN   NO     VII 

Talpa  virginianus  niger.    SEE  A.    Thesaur. 

Talpa  virginiana  BRISSON.    R6gne  anim. 

Talparubm  ERXLEBEN.    Syst.  regn.  anim. 

Talpa fusca  SHAW .    Gen.  Zool. 

Talpa  purpurascens  SHAW.    Gen.  Zool. 

Talpa  vulgaris  var  B.  BODDAERT.    Elencn.  Anim. 

Talpa  pennantii  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad  Phila.,  Y. 


Figs.  5  and  6. 
A  Upper  surface  of  hand.    B  Upper  surface  of  snout. 

Talpa  latimanus  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila. 
(?)  Tlapa  townsendii  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila. 
Talpa  aquatica  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila. 
Talpa  cenea  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila. 
Scalops  aquaticus  Cuv. 

ILLIGER.    Prodrom. 

FISCHER.    Synops.  Mam. 

WAGNER.    Syst.  d.  Amph. 

BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Phila. 

WAGNER.    Schreber  Saugethiere. 

GRAY.    Mam.  Brit.  Mus. 

REICHENBACH.    Naturgeschicte  Raubthiere. 

BLAINVILLE.    Osteograph,  lasectiv. 

DEKAY.    Zool.  N.  Y. 

AUDITBON  and  BACHMAN.    Quadr.  N.  A. 

GIEBEL.    Saugethiere. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A. 

FITZINGER.    Naturliche  Fam.  d.  Maulwiirfe. 

ALLEN.    Mam.  Mass. 

BRAYTON.    Mam.  Ohio. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  53 

Scalops  canadensis  F.  Cuv.    Diet,  des  Sc.  Nat. 

DESMAKEST.    Nouv.  Diet.  Nat.  Hist. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Americana. 

GRIFFITH.    Anim.  King. 

RICHARDS.    Fauna  Bor.  Am. 

EMMONS.    Zool.  N.  Y. 
Scalops  latimanus  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Phila. 

REICHENBACH.    Naturg.  Kaubt. 

AUDUBON  and  BACHMAN.    Quad.  N.  A. 

WAGNER.    Schreber's  Saugeth. 
Scalops pennsylvanica  HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis  Mam. 

WAGNER.    Schreber's  Saugeth. 
?  Scalops  ceneus  CASSIN.    Proc.  Acad.  Phila. 

WAGNER.    Schreber's  Saugeth. 

The  above  synonymy  is  not  vouched  for  entirely,  much  of  it 
being  collected  from  various  works.  It  serves  to  show  how 
numerous  have  been  the  notices  of  this  animal,  and  yet  how 
little  has  been  added  to  our  knowledge  of  its  habits,  variations 
and  anatomy. 

The  following  measurements  indicate  the  average  size : 
Nose  to  anus,  4.6  ;  tail,  1.4  ;  total  length,  6  ;  nose  to  incisors, 
0.5;  nose  to  ear,  1.35;  nose  to  occiput,  2.0;  length  of  fore 
foot,  0.9;  width,  0.85;  length  of  hind  foot,  0.9.  Additional 
measurements  of  the  same  specimen  may  be  taken  from  the 
figure  of  the  skeleton.  Color  deep  brown  to  plumbeous,  with 
a  yellowish  reflection  ;  fur  moderately  long  and  fine.  Tail 
almost  naked.  Snout  long,  flattened,  obliquely  truncate,  bear- 
ing the  nostrils  on  the  upper  and  outer  surface,  inclined  toward 
each  other.  Fore  foot  greatly  enlarged,  both  by  the  lateral 
separation  of  the  fingers,  which  are  fully  webbed,  and  by  the 
addition  of  a  wide  blade  supported  by  a  specially  developed 
sickle-shaped  bone  of  the  wrist.  (See  fig.  4  and  figs.  6  A  and 
B.)  The  ear  is  very  minute  and  entirely  without  an  external 
appendage  ;  the  eye  is  concealed  under  the  skin,  and  lies  but 
little  back  of  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

The  mole  may  be  almost  said  to  swim  through  the  earth,  its 
feet  not  being  beneath  the  body,  but  on  either  side,  and  so 
armed  with  broad  spade-like  claws,  and  so  highly  provided 
with  muscles  as  to  glide  rapidly  through  the  soft  earth.  Dur- 
ing the  passage  through  the  earth,  the  back  and  shoulders 
wedge  the  earth  upward,  so  that  the  course  of  the  animal  can 
be  followed  by  the  observer  above.  During  its  passage  the 
highly  sensitive  and  vibratile  snout  is  constantly  in  motion, 
searching  for  such  insects,  worms,  etc.,  as  may  come  in  its 


54  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

way.  It  seems  hardly  likely  that  this  organ  really  assists 
materially  in  loosening  or  removing  the  soil,  as  some  have 
thought.  Advantage  is  taken  of  the  upward  thrust  of  the 
earth  to  place  dead-falls  over  their  runways,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  passage  of  the  animal  shall  cause  a  weighted  and 
armed  board  to  descend  and  transfix  the  animal.  Little  is 
known  of  the  domestic  economy  of  the  mole.  It  rarely  leaves 
the  earth  on  dark  days,  though  it  has  been  seen  in  the  streets 
of  a  large  city,  wandering  aimlessly.  The  males  are  said  to 
be  very  pugnacious,  and  live  apart  during  most  of  the  year. 
Two  litters  of  from  five  to  nine  young  may  be  produced  annu- 
ally. The  nest  is  found  in  sheltered  situations,  and  is  com 
posed  of  grass  and  leaves.  The  complicated  system  of  galleries 
produced  by  Talpa  is  not  ascribed  to  our  species. 

Scalops  (aquaticus  VAR.  )  argentatus  AUD.  and  BACH. 

Scalops  argentatus  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Phila. 

AUDUBON  and  BACHMAN.    Quad.  "K.  A. 

EEICHENBACH.    Naturg.  Raubt. 

WAGNER.    Schreber's  Saugeth. 

BAIRD.    Nam.  N.  A. 

FITZTNGER.    Naturlich.  Fam.  Waulwurfe. 

JORDAN.    Mam.  Vertebrates. 

KENNICOTT.    Pat.  Of.  Rep.  Agr.,  1857. 
Ssalops  aquaticus  GIEBEL.    Saugeth. 
Scalops  aquaticus  var.  argentatus  COUES.  [?] 

BRAYTON.    Mam.  Ohio. 

Although  this  is  the  common  form  in  Minnesota,  the  writer 
has  had  no  opportunity  to  compare  the  anatomy  with  S.  aqua- 
ticus. In  all  probability  it  should  stand  as  a  well  marked  geo- 
graphical variety,  conspicuous  for  its  light  colored  silvery  fur, 
which  is  very  long,  fluffy  and  soft.  It  averages  somewhat 
larger  than  the  common  mole;  other  differences  seem  to  be 
intangible.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  a  more  beautiful  pelage 
than  that  of  this  mole,  the  individual  hairs  being  as  fine  and  so 
peculiarly  formed  as  to  give  rise  to  a  gorgeous  play  of  colors, 
due  to  interference  of  the  rays  of  light  reflected.  This  species 
occurs  in  Ohio,  and  extends  westward,  throughout  the  prairie 
region. 

Mr.  Weber  says:  "Two  moles  in  nine  days  ate  341  white 
worms,  193  earth  worms,  25  caterpillars,  and  a  mouse,  both  the 
bones  and  skin  of  which  they  swallowed."  An  idea  that  the 
mole  is  possessed  of  an  unusually  keen  sense  of  hearing  seems 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  55 

to  be  indicated  by  the  expression  in  Shakespeare  :    "Pray  you 
tread  softly,  that  the  blind  mole  may  not  hear  a  foot- fall." 

GENUS  SCAPHANUS. 

Dentition:  i.  f.  c.  f,  pm.  £,  m.  fx2=44.  The  teeth  forward 
of  the  last  premolar  are  nearly  equal  in  size  above  and  below. 
Nostrils  lateral  or  superior.  Tail  hairy. 

Scaphanus  breweri  is  not  known  to  occur  in  Minnesota,  but 
since  another  closely  allied  form,  S.  townsendi,  occurs  in  Oregon, 
it  is  not  unnatural  to  expect  that  some  representative  of  the 
genus  will  ultimately  be  found. 

Condylura  cristata  L.    (DESM.  ) 

STAR-NOSED    MOLE. 

Sorex  cristatus  LINN^US.    Sys.  Nat.  (Ed.  X),  1758. 

ERXLEBEN.    Syst.  Reg.  Animal,  1777. 

SCHREBER.     Saugeth,  1784. 

BODD^RT.    Elenchus  Anim.,  1784. 

GMELIN.    Syst.  Nat.,  1788. 
Condylura  cristata  DESMAREST.    Journ.  de  Physique,  1819. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Am.,  1825. 

GODMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1825. 

GRIFFITH.    Guv.  An.  King,  1827. 

DEKAY.    Zool.  of  N.  Y.,  1842. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 

MERRIAM.    Mam.  Adirondacks. 

Ehinaster  cristatus  WAGNER.    Suppl.  Shreb.  Sauget.,  1841. 
Talpa  lonqicaudata  ERXL.    Syst.  Reg.  Anim.,  1777. 

SHAW.  Gen.  Zool.,  1800. 
Talpa  radiata  SHAW.  Gen.  Zool.,  1800. 
/Sorex  radiatus  SHAW.  Gen.  Zool.,  1800. 
Condylura  longicaudata  DESMAREST.  Mamm.,  1820. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Am.,  1825. 

GRIFFITH.    Cuv.,  1827. 

RICHARDSON.    Fauna  Bor.  Am.,  1829. 

FISCHER.    Synopsis,  1829. 

GIEBEL.    Saugeth.,  1855. 

Ehinaster  longicaudata  WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreb.,  1841. 
Talpa  longicaudata  BODD.    Elench.  Anim.,  1784.* 
Condylura  macroura  HARLAN.    Fauna  Am.,  1825. 

RICHARDS.    Fauna  bor.  Amer. 

FISCHER.    Synop.  Mam. 

GIEBEL.    Saugethiere. 

REICHENBACH.    Naturg.  Raubth. 
Ehinaster  macrurus  FITZINGER.    Naturl.  Fam.  Maulw. 
Condylura  prasinata  HARRIS,  GODMAN,  LESSON,  WAGNER. 
Astromycetes  cristatus  GRAY.    Etc.,  etc. 


56  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

Only  a  partial  synonomy  is  given,  but  enough  to  indicate  the 
attention  which  this  strange  species  has  received  at  the  hands 
of  naturalists.  Although  probably  measurably  common,  this 
species  is  very  rarely  seen.  Only  one  specimen  was  secured 
during  the  progress  of  the  survey,  and  the  Indian  who  secured 
it  stated  that  it  was  the  first  one  he  had  seen,  although  he 
evinced  great  familiarity  with  even  the  smaller  animals. 

The  specimen,  a  male  with  thickened  tall,  measured  as  fol- 
lows: Length  to  tail,  4T\;  tail,  3^;  nose  to  base  of  fore  foot, 
If;  palm,  f ;  longest  fore  claw,  j\;  hind  foot,  1T^.  The  color 
above  was  black  with  a  shade  os  vandyke  brown,  below  a  just 
perceptible  tinge  of  reddish  brown,  with  a  ferrugineous  suffu- 
sion. Here  and  there  are  rusty  splotches,  especially  under  the 
throat  and  thighs,  tail  and  feet  reddish  flesh  color;  former  fusi- 
form, constricted  at  the  base.  Claws  straw-yellow. 

In  general  form  this  species  closely  resembles  the  common 
mole,  being  clumsy,  neckless,  and  with  enlarged  palms.  The 
snout  is  thicker  than  in  the  mole,  and  its  smooth  terminal  por- 
tion extends  into  a  fimbriated  margin;  the  radiating  cartilag- 
inous processes  numbering  from  20  to  22.  These  processes  are 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  The  nostrils  are  terminal  and 
circular  and  the  muzzle  is  furrowed  below.  The  eyes  are  small, 
but  distinctly  visible,  and  are  midway  between  the  muzzle  and 
the  ear.  The  external  ear  is  limited  to  two  small  valve-like 
flaps.  The  tail  is  fusiform,  and  covered  with  scales  which  have 
an  annular  arrangement  between  which  are  sparse  hairs. 

The  palms  are  fringed  with  stiff  hair,  and  the  outer  edges 
of  the  front  toes  are  produced  into  horny  processes. 

The  star-nosed  mole  is  distributed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  in  suitable  situations,  but  seems  to  be  most  at  home 
between  40°  to  45"  N.  latitude.  Moist  meadows  furnish  the  con- 
ditions best  suited  to  this  species,  and  there  it  may  sometimes 
be  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  company  with  Scalops 
aquaticus,  in  the  habits  of  which  it  shares,  feeding  on  grubs 
and  the  like.  The  breeding  chamber  is  placed  beneath  the 
protection  of  a  stump,  .but  little  is  known  of  the  habits. 

Osteology:  The  skull  is  more  slender  than  in  Scalops,  and 
the  auditory  openings  and  bullsB  resemble  the  shrews.  Denti- 
tion I,  i,  I,  I  x2=44.  The  upper  incisors  project  horizontally 
and  are  approximate;  these  are  followed  by  a  filiform  tooth, 
and  this  by  a  canine-like  tooth  with  a  small  spur  posteriorly. 
After  a  hiatus  comes  a  small  canine. 


CHAPTER  FOUR. 


ORDER  CARNIYORA. 


FLESH  EATERS. 

This  order  is  represented  within  our  limits  by — species  of— 
genera  contained  in — distinct  families.  It  deserves  to  rank  as 
one  of  the  highest,  if  not  the  highest  order,  if  specialized  differ- 
entiation in  one  direction  and  within  narrow  limits  are  points 
sufficient  to  justify  the  claim.  Although  actually  as  a  group, 
of  little  economic  interest,  except  it  be  on  account  of  inroads 
upon  domestic  animals,  no  order  secures  more  popular  atten- 
tion and  interest  than  this.  Lions  and  tigers,  bears  and  wolves, 
these  and  others  are  familiar  and  dreaded  names  from  the  nur- 
sery. Besides  this,  the  constant  and  household  companions 
which  man  has  selected  from  the  ranks  of  the  lower  animals 
belong  to  this  order.  Domestic  cats  and  dogs  introduce  to  us 
the  larger  and  more  intractible  cousins  of  the  wilderness. 

In  spite  of  the  considerable  variation  in  external  appearance 
exhibited  by  different  members  of  the  order,  it  is  very  homo- 


58  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

geneous  in  essential  characters.  From  the  weasel,  to  the  bear 
or  lion,  we  may  look  without  finding  any  animal  so  peculiar 
that  there  is  any  difficulty  in  recognizing  affinities  with  its  fel- 
lows. 

The  typical  carnivore  has  a  more  or  less  triangular  head 
with  pointed  muzzle,  armed  with  long  vibrissse.  The  ears  are 
pointed  and  movable,  while  the  eyes  are  large,  or  at  least  of 
fair  size,  (the  bears  do  not  conform  to  this  type),  and  are  di- 
rected forward.  The  body  is  powerful,  if  not  graceful  and 
lithe,  as  in  most  cases.  Limbs  are  of  moderate  length  and 
adapted  for  progression,  (but  rarely  useful  for  prehension). 
The  claws  are  powerful,  and  in  the  highest  groups  retractile, 
so  that  the  keen  points  and  edges  are  not  worn  dull  by  walk- 
ing. This  is  accomplished  by  the  peculiar  position  of  the  last 
bone  of  the  toe.  There  are  usually  five  toes  on  each  foot  and 
the  reduction  never  affects  more  than  one  toe  on  a  foot. 
Though  the  bones  of  the  fore  arm  are  not  united,  they  are  nev- 
ertheless not  adapted  for  rotary  motions  of  pronation,  etc.,  in 
most  groups. 

The  bears  touch  the  ground  with  the  whole  sole  of  each  foot, 
or  are,  in  other  words,  plantigrade.  Between  this  condition, 
and  that  of  the  cat,  where  only  the  toes  touch  the  ground  in 
walking,  or  when  progression  is  entirely  digitigrade,  there  is 
a  complete  series  of  intermediate  links.  The  former  method  is 
held  to  be  the  primitive  one  for  the  order  and  permits  of  great 
freedom  in  the  use  of  the  extremities,  but  it  is  also  accompa- 
nied with  a  certain  heaviness  and  even  clumsiness,  which  is 
avoided  by  the  digitigrate  foot.  An  animal  which  must  run 
swiftly,  or  spring  upon  its  prey  from  a  distance,  requires  the 
additional  leverage  furnished  by  a  long  heel. 

Tlie  brain  is  well  developed,  having  several  convolutions  and 
a  large  corpus  callosum.  The  cerebral  hemispheres  do  not 
overlap  the  cerebellum,  however.  The  development  of  the 
organs  of  sense  reaches  the  maximum  in  this  order.  The  eyes 
are  usually  specially  adapted  to  nocturnal  vision,  so  that,  al- 
though the  contractile  iris  adjusts  the  eye  to  strong  daylight, 
the  darkness  of  night  is  no  obstacle  to  the  chase  of  prey.  The 
following  anatomical  characters  may  be  added.  The  digestive 
tract  is  comparatively  simple,  the  stomach  never  being  com- 
posed of  more  than  one  chamber,  and  the  coecum,  if  present, 
is  small.  The  clavicles  are  absent  or  very  rudimentary,  being 
most  highly  developed  in  the  cats.  The  atlas  vertebra  has  two 
large  transverse  processes.  The  zygomatic  arches  are  usu- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  59 

ally  very  wide  and  curve  upward.  The  orbit  is  never  set  off 
from  the  temporal  fossa,  by  the  union  of  the  post  frontal  pro- 
cesses of  the  temporal  and  zygomatic  bones.  There  is  in  al- 
most every  case  a  deciduate,  zonary  placenta.  The  dentition 
is  especially  characteristic  and  also  difficult  to  reduce  to  the 
same  general  formula.  The  dentition  of  the  forepart  of  the 
mouth  is,  indeed,  remarkably  uniform  throughout  the  group. 
There  are  always  six  incisors  in  each  jaw  (except  in  the  single 
case  of  the  sea  otter)  and  two  canines.  The  incisors  are  usually 
chisel- shaped,  -and  are  well  adapted  to  gnaw  the  flesh  from 
bones  of  their  prey.  The  canines  serve  an  entirely  different 
purpose.  They  are  frequently  so  long  that  they  lock  the  jaws 
when  they  are  closed,  aud  enable  the  animal  to  seize  its  prey 
with  a  grip  which  no  efforts  will  suffice  to  shake  off.  The  size 
and  form  of  the  canines  constitute,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  in- 
dex of  the  habits  of  the  animal.  The  molars  and  premolars 
constitute  a  more  or  less  continuous  series  of  variable  number. 

The  crowns  are  usually  furnished  either  with  sharp  cutting 
edges  or  conical  prominences.  As  the  canines  indicate  the 
habits  of  the  animal  especially  with  reference  to  the  way  in 
which  they  secure  their  prey,  so  the  molars  and  premolars 
furnish  good  evidence  of  the  sort  of  food  constituting  the  ord- 
inary diet.  The  lateral  extension  of  both  the  condyles  and 
glenoid  surfaces,  for  the  lower  jaw  prevents  that  lateral  mo- 
tion of  the  jaws  characteristic  of  herbivorous  animals,  and  in 
harmony  with  this  fact,  the  molars  do  not  oppose  each  other, 
but  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  fit  between  those  above,  and,  in 
many  cases,  their  knife-like  edges  constitute  the  blades  of  ver- 
itable shears.  There  are  never  more  than  four  premolars  in 
one  half  of  the  jaw  in  any  living  carnivore,  and  the  number 
may  be  considerably  reduced.  One  of  the  premolars  above  and 
below  is  remarkably  developed  and  furnished  with  two  knife- 
like  lobes,  and  is  especially  adapted  to  the  cutting  of  flesh  into 
morsels.  These  sectorials  are  frequently  the  largest  teeth  and 
are  situated  so  far  toward  the  back  of  the  mouth,  that  they  are 
very  effective  on  account  of  the  superior  leverage  their  position 
in  the  jaw  occasions. 

The  operation  of  these  teeth  can  be  seen  when,  for  instance, 
a  cat  in  biting  off  a  tough  bit  turns  the  head  to  one  side  and 
closing  her  eyes,  gnashes  with  a  sort  of  fury,  cracking  even 
thick  bones.  Back  of  these  teeth  are  the  true  molars  which 
have  flatter  or  tuberculated  crowns.  In  the  typical  carnivores 
these  are  slightly  developed,  but  they  keep  pace  with  the  de- 
velopment of  omnivorous  propensities. 


60  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

According  to  the  dentition,  all  living  and  fossil  carnivorous 
animals  might  be  grouped  under  two  types,  the  one  represented 
by  the  fossil  family  Arctocyonidce,  and  the  other  by  the  likewise 
extinct  family  Hycenodontidce.  The  former  have  the  characteris- 
tic dentition  of  omnivorous  animals  and  the  latter  of  carnivo- 
res. Both  had  44  teeth  while  the  latter  had  five  premolars, 
the  last  two  of  which  were  sectorial. 

The  sectorial  of  the  upper  jaw  is  always  one  of  the  milk 
teeth  while  that  of  the  lower  jaw  belongs  to  the  permanent 
series .  The  variations  from  the  original  type  which  are  ob- 
served in  modern  carnivorous  animals  consist  in  reduction  in 
the  number  and  various  modifications  in  the  form  and  use  of 
individual  teeth.  No  living  carnivore  has  more  than  the  origi- 
nal number,  44 .  In  the  dogs  and  bears  the  number  is  reduced 
to  42  while  the  Subursidaa  have  two  less.  The  badgers  have 
36;  in  all  these  cases,  however,  the  molars  exhibit  the  true 
omnivorous  characters. 

The  true  carnivores,  as  represented  typically  by  the  cats, 
have  only  30  teeth.  The  animal  in  this  order  which  possesses 
the  fewest  teeth  is  the  Patagonian  Lyncodon  which  has  28, 
i.  e.,  one  premolar  less  than  the  cats  on  either  side.  Among 
the  fossil  cats  is  an  instance  of  still  greater  reduction  in  the 
Machaerodus  with  its  monstrous  walrus-like  upper  canines. 

Although,  as  above  said,  the  dentition  affords  a  basis  for 
sub -dividing  the  order  into  two  groups  it  is  found  convenient 
to  form  three  sub-orders  as  follows: 

I.  Sub-order  ^Sluroidea  containing  the  families   Viverridce  or 
civet  cats,   Hycenidce  or  hyaenas,    Cryptoproctidoe  including   the 
Foussa  of  Madagascar,  and  Felidce,  the  cats. 

II.  Sub -order  Arctoidea  embracing    the  families    Ursidce  or 
bears,  and  Mustelidce  or  martins. 

III.  Sub-order    Cynoidea    embracing   the     Canidce    or    dog 
family. 

SUBORDER  ^ELUROIDEA. 

The  characters  upon  which  this  suborder  is  founded  are 
technical  and  the  real  basis  for  the  subdivision  is  found  in  simi- 
larities of  structure  and  habits  which  connect  the  different 
members  of  this  group  more  closely  with  each  other  than  with 
members  of  the  other  suborders.  The  points  usually  selected 
as  distinctive  are  the  following:  Teeth  without  tuberculate 
crowned  molars,  reduced  in  number.  Auditory  bullas  inflated, 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  61 

rounded  and  usually  septate,  the  external  meatus  being  short. 
Paroccipital  and  mastoid  processes  not  prominent,  the  latter 
being  sometimes  indistinguishable. 

The  caecum  is  small  or  absent.  There  are  both  cowper's  and 
prostrate  glands.  Of  the  four  families  of  this  sub-order  only 
one,  the  Felidse,  is  represented  in  Minnesota,  and  we  may  here 
simply  pass  in  review  the  typical  members  of  the  others  as 
introductory  to  a  study  of  our  own  Carnivora. 

The  family  Viverridce  is  restricted  to  the  warmer  portions  of 
the  old  world,  one  species  only  occurring  in  southern  Europe. 
The  legs  are  short  and  the  body  usually  is  almost  weasel-like 
in  its  slenderness.  There  may  be  four  or  five  toes  on  the  feet. 
Both  plantigrade  and  digitigrate  forms  occur.  In  the  one  case 
the  claws  are  not  retractile,  while  in  the  other  they  are  cat- 
like. 

The  head  is  small  and  narrow  on  account  of  the  slight  arch 
of  the  zygoma.  The  orbit  is  sometimes  closed.  The  teeth  are 
more  or  less  carnivorous  but  vary  greatly  in  form.  The  num- 
ber of  incisors  and  canines  is  constant  and  normal.  There  are 
also  constantly  two  molars  in  each  ramus  of  both  jaws.  The 
number  of  premolars  may  be  three  or  four  and  the  conforma- 
tion of  the  teeth  differs  in  the  milk  set  from  that  in  the  perma- 
nent dentition.  Of  the  numerous  species  most  are  noctuiunl  and 
all  have  a  musky  smell. 

Exceptionally,  fruit  forms  the  staple  diet  but  the  gi eater 
number  are  entirely  carnivorous.  Some  species,  like  the  ich- 
neumon have  been  domesticated  and  prove  useful  in  ridding 
buildings  of  vermin. 

The  genet  represents  the  family  in  Europe  and  is  a  slender 
yellowish  gray  animal  with  black-spotted  pelt  and  long,  ringed 
tail.  The  Asiatic  zibet  and  the  African  civet  are  worthy  of 
note  on  account  of  the  peculiar  secretion  of  the  anal  glands 
known  as  zibet  and  which,  when  mixed  with  oil,  constitutes  a 
perfume-like  musk.  It  is  said  that  both  in  India  and  parts  of 
Africa  numbers  of  these  animals  are  kept  in  confinement  and 
well  fed  with  birds  and  periodically  relieved  of  the  waxy  se- 
cretion by  scraping  the  sack-like  mouth  of  the  glands  with  a 
spoon.  The  two  animals  resemble  each  other,  the  African  be- 
ing larger  and  reaching  the  size  of  a  fox. 

Prionodon  gracilis  is  a  graceful  little  animal  with  a  spotted 
coat  found  upon  Java  and  neighboring  islands  and  feeds  en- 
tirely upon  birds.  The  coffee  cat,  Paradoxurus,  inhabiting 
eastern  India  is  more  omnivorous  than  the  above  and  feeds 


62  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

upon  sweet  vegetables  like  bananas  as  well  as  birds.  It  is 
beautifully  marbled  with  black  upon  a  yellow  ground.  The 
mampalon  which  dwells  near  the  fresh  waters  of  Borneo  and 
Sumatra  is  an  abberant  form  resembling  the  otter  greatly  and 
like  it  is  aquatic,  having  webbed  feet  and  is  partially  planti- 
grade. 

The  ichneumons  have  already  been  referred  to  and  many 
species  are  known. 

The  suricate  is  a  small  animal  something  over  a  foot  long, 
inhabiting  South  Africa  and  remarkable  for  having  but  four  toes 
and  teeth  of  an  insectivorous  type.  The  food  consists  of  small 
mammals,  birds  and  insects  and  the  animal  is  used  by  the 
natives,  as  is  the  ichneumon  elsewhere,  to  destroy  vermin  in 
spite  of  a  strong  and  to  Europeans  exceedingly  offensive  odor. 
In  addition  to  the  above  we  may  mention  the  mangue,  Cynictis, 
the  binturong,  and  Arctitis. 

The  Hycenidce,  or  hyaena  family  are  a  rather  small  group 
although  it  was  in  the  last  geological  age  of  relatively  greater 
importance.  The  living  animals  of  this  group  are  confined  to 
the  warm  portions  of  the  Eastern  Continent  and  are  nocturnal 
in  habit. 

The  external  form  is  somewhat  like  that  of  a  wolf  but  dif- 
fers especially  in  the  great  and  disproportionate  development 
of  the  fore  legs.  The  head  is  large  and  the  muzzle  is  short. 
The  pupil  is  round  and  the  ears  pointed.  The  feet  have  four 
toes  except  in  the  Aard  Vark  or  Earth  Wolf  of  South  Africa 
which  has  five  on  the  fore  feet.  Progression  is  plantigrade 
and  the  claws  not  retractile.  All  hyaenas,  have  anal  glands 
which  emit  an  unpleasant  smell  and  prevent  the  domestication 
of  tne  animal.  The  lower  jaw  is  very  powerful  and  armed  with 
strong  crushing  teeth.  Their  milk  and  permanent  dentition 
are  very  different,  the  following  being  the  formulae;  milk  denti- 
tion f.|:|.g-=32,  permanent  detition  f -\.| -\-  The  dorsal  vertebrae 
number  14  or  15.  The  Proteles,  or  Aard  Vark,  differs  con- 
spicuously from  the  true  hyaenas  especially  in  possessing 
small  weak  teeth.  This  animal  is  little  known  but  is  very 
retiring,  burrowing  with  facility  and  possibly  living  largely 
upon  insects  and  reptiles.  The  milk  dentition  is  of  a  more 
carnivorous  sort  than  the  permanent  set  and  furnishes  evidence 
that  the  present  anomalous  nature  of  the  teeth  is  due  to  retro- 
grade development. 

A  third  family  the  Cryptoproctidce,  contains  only  the  genus. 
Cryptoprocta  formed  to  include  the  Foussa  of  Madagascar 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  63 

This  animal  is  interesting  not  only  because  it  is  the  sole  car- 
nivore of  any  size  found  upon  Madagascar  but  because  it 
unites  with  the  form  of  a  civet  the  dentition  found  in  no  living 
cat,  but  characteristic  of  tertiary  Felidae.  The  body  and  head 
are  slender,  the  tail  long,  and  while  the  claws  are  retractile, 
the  whole  sole  is  applied  to  the  ground.  There  are  anal  glands 
such  as  characterize  the  civets  to  which  and  the  Felidae  they 
form  a  link.  The  last  of  the  families  of  the  JBluroidea  is  that 
containing  the  cats  proper  to  which  we  now  pass. 

FELIDJE. 

THE  CAT  FAMILY. 

This  family  may  be  considered  the  typical  and  the  highest 
member  of  the  Carnivora.  We  find  in  this  group  only  graceful 
and  well-formed  animals  combining  with  wonderful  strength 
and  agility  such  variations  in  form  as  are  best  adapted  to  the 
special  habitat  in  which  the  animal  is  found.  The  psychical 
characters  agree  with  the  physical  and  we  find  in  the  cats  a 
fine  combination  of  courage  and  affection.  In  addition  to 
highly  developed  senses  and  mental  powers,  the  cats  have  a 
certain  spirit  of  independence  which  makes  them  less  adapted 
than  the  dogs  to  be  the  slaves  of  man.  The  cat  always  retains 
her  self  esteem,  at  least  so  long  as  she  keeps  her  pelt  and  feet 
dry,  and  wishes  to  be  treated  with  consideration,  in  which  case 
she  will  exhibit  all  the  affection  with  none  of  the  servility  of 
the  dog,  as  though  conscious  of  royal  blood  and  princely  con- 
nections. The  personal  pride  which  makes  the  cat  so  careful 
not  to  soil  her  beautiful  fur  is  seen  in  all  her  relations  with 
man.  She  does  not  hesitate  to  take  possession  of  the  best 
place  and  exacts  attention  to  her  kittens  with  motherly  pride, 
and  in  return  for  care  and  caresses  often  lays  her  booty  of  mice 
or  birds  at  the  feet  of  the  master,  perhaps  rather  as  an  evidence 
of  service  than  in  the  real  expectation  of  their  being  used. 
The  toes  only  touch  the  ground  in  walking  and  the  hallux  is 
absent,  while  the  thumb  is  elevated  above  the  other  toes. 
Nearly  all  the  family  are  furnished  with  retractile  claws  which 
are  preserved  from  dulling  by  being  withdrawn  into  sheaths 
during  walking.  In  the  living  species  there  is  very  slight 
variation  from  one  type  of  dentition.  The  formula  for  the  milk 
dentition  is  as  follows:  £:{:|:$=26  for  the  permanent  set 
1:1:3:1=30.  The  incisors  are  small,  irregularly  chisel  shaped 


64  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

and  adapted  for  gnawing.  The  canines  are  long  and  curved. 
The  first  upper  pre-molar  is  small  while  the  third  is  the  sec- 
torial  and  is  the  largest  tooth,  being  trenchant  with  three  ex- 
ternal cusps  and  an  internal  tubercle.  The  molar  is  small. 
The  lower  molar  is  the  sectorial  which  has  two  nearly  equal 
cusps  and  a  posterior  talon  or  tubercle. 

The  zygomas  are  widely  arched  laterally.  The  skull  is  short 
"and  usually  arched,  the  orbits  being  large  and  the  longitudinal 
crest  less  powerfully  developed  than  in  Canidse.  There  is  no 
ali- sphenoid  canal.  The  bullse  are  divided  into  two  chambers. 
There  are  but  thirteen  dorsal  vertebrae. 

The  Felidce  live  almost  exclusively  upon  flesh  and  prefer 
living  prey,  upon  which  most  species  creep  with  remarkable 
patience  and  skill,  and  rarely  pursue  an  animal  which  they 
have  failed  to  secure  at  the  first  spring.  A  remarkable  habit 
which  prevails  among  the  cats  is  that  of  prolonging  the  excite- 
ment of  the  chase  by  trifling  with  the  prey  after  it  is  partially 
disabled. 

The  Felidce  do  not  hunt  in  packs  but  singly,  or,  during  the 
youth  of  the  kittens,  in  pairs.  The  cats  have  a  most  interest- 
ing and  pathetic  affection  for  the  young,  which  are  cared  for 
with  unwearying  devotion  and  protected  with  unreserved  self- 
sacrifice.  There  are  ordinarily  two  or  three  young,  although 
domestic  races  become  more  prolific.  The  maternal  instinct  is 
so  great  that  the  young  of  other  animals  are  often  adopted 
when  the  mother  is  deprived  of  her  kittens. 

The  living  members  of  the  family  may  be  grouped  in  three 
genera,  the  principal  one  Felis  containing  the  cats  proper,  the 
second,  Lynx,  the  short-tailed  northern  cats,  and  the  third, 
Cyncelurus,  the  cheetah,  or  hunting  leopard. 

The  last  named  genus  contains  three  species,  or  more  proba- 
bly, three  varieties  of  a  single  species.  These  are  C.  jubatus. 
C.  guttatus  and  C.  lanea.  The  head  is  cat-like  but  the  body  is 
more  like  that  of  a  dog,  the  legs  being  long  and  the  claws  not 
retractile.  The  pupil  is  round  instead  of  linear,  and  various 
osteological  peculiarities  distinguish  this  genus  quite  fully 
from  the  cats  proper.  The  several  forms  are  found  from  India 
to  southern  Africa. 

GENUS  FELIS. 
»  . 

Although  numerically  the  largest  genus  of  the  Felidce  it  is 
represented  in  the  United  States  by  a  single  species,  the  pan- 
ther or  cougar.  There  are  between  forty  and  forty-five  species 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  65 

of  this  genus,  of  which  brief  descriptions  may  be  found  in 
Mivart's  '  'The  Cat, "  and  in  general  works  on  natural  history. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  give  the  names  of  these  and  their  habitat. 

1  Fells  leo,  Lion- Africa,  Arabia  and  f ormerlyEurope  and  India. 

2  Felis  tigris,  Tiger — Asia,  Java. 

3  Felis  pardis,  Leopard — Africa  and  Southern  Asia. 

4  Felis  uncia,  Ounce — Highlands  of  Central  Asia. 

5  FELIS  CONCOLOR,  Puma — America. 

6  Felis  onca,  Jaguar — South  America,  N.  to  U.  S. 

7  Felis  macrocelis,  Clouded  Tiger — South  Eastern  Asia. 

8  Felis  scripta,  Thibet  Tiger— Thibet. 

9  Felis  tristis,  Fontaneir's  Cat — China. 

10  Felis  aurata,  Bay  Cat — Nepal,  Sumatra,  Borneo. 

11  Felis  viverrina,  Fishing  Cat— Bengal. 

12  Felis  bengalensis,  Leopard — Eastern  Asia. 

13  Felis  tvagati,  Wagati — India. 

14  Felis  marmorata,  Marbled  Tiger — Nepal  to  Borneo. 

15  Felis  serval,  Serval — Africa. 

16  Felis  rutila,  Golden-haired  Cat — Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia. 

17  Felis  neglecta,  Grey  African  Cat — Gambia. 

18  Felis  servalina,  Servaline  Cat— Sierra  Leone. 

19  Felis  pardalis,  Ocelot — South  America. 

20  Felis  tigrina,  Margay — South  America. 

21  Felis  guigna,  Guigna — South  America. 

22  Felis  pardinoides,  Ocelot- like  Cat — South  America. 

23  Felis  yaguarondi,  Yaguarondi — South  America. 

24  Felis  eyra,  Eyra — South  America. 

25  Felis  colocollo,  Colocollo — South  America. 

26  Felis  rubiginosa,  Rusty -spotted  Cat — Madras,  Ceylon. 

27  Felis  chinensis,  Chinese  Cat — China. 

28  Felis  minuta,  Little  Cat — Philippine  Islands. 

29  Felis  jerdoni,  Jerdon's  Cat — (?) 

30  Felis  planiceps,  Flat-headed  Cat — Malacca,  Borneo. 

31  Felis  badia,  Bornean  Bay  Cat — Borneo. 

32  Felis  caligata,  Egyptian  Cat — Egypt. 

33  Felis  catus,  Common  Wild  Cat — Europe. 

34  Felis  torquata,  Indian  Wild  Cat — India. 

35  Felis  cliaus,  Jungle  Cat — India. 

36  Felis  ornata.  Ornamented  Jungle  Cat — India. 

37  Felis  caudatus,  Steppe  Cat — Bokara. 

38  Felis  shawiana,  Shaw's  Cat — Turkestan. 

39  Felis  manul,  Manul — Siberia,  Thibet. 

40  Felis  pajeros,  Pampas  Cat — South  America 


66  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  most  obvious  external  peculiarity  of  the  genus  Felis  is 
the  long  and,  frequently,  tufted  tail,  the  comparatively  short 
legs,  the  lack  of  ear  tufts  and  the  (commonly)  circular  pupil. 
The  dentition  is  f,  f,  -f,  |.  The  milk  dentition  is  f,  J,  f ,  there 
being  no  distinction  into  molars  and  premolars. 


Felis  concolor  L. 

THE  PUMA.    See  Plate  II.) 

Felis  concolor  LINNEUS.    Mantissa,  1771,  p.  522. 

ERXLEBEN.    Syst.  Anim.,  1777,  p.  511. 

SCHREBER.    Saeugethiere,  vol.  Ill,  1778,  p.  394. 

BODDOERT.    El.  Anim .,  I.  1784,  p.  90. 

CUVIER.    Rechercbes  sur.  esp.  viv.  d.  grandchats,  1809. 

GRIFFITH.    Class  Quadrim.,  order  Garni v.,  1821. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825,  p.  94. 

TEMMINCK.    Monog.  de  Mammif.,  I,  1827,  p.  139. 

GRIFFITH,  etal.    Cuvier's  Animal  King.,  V.,  1827,  p.  163. 

FISHER.    Synopsis  Mammaiium,  1829,  p.  197. 

DOUGHTY.    Cabinet  Nat.  Hist.,  1830,  p.  190. 

FULLER.    Period  of  gestation,  Proc.  Comrn. 

Zool.  Soc.,  Lond.,11,  1832,  p.  62. 
MARTIN.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  Lond.,  I,  1833,  p.  120. 
WAGNER.    Sup.  Schreb.  Saeugth.,  184,  p.  461. 
DEKAY.    N.  Y.  Zoology,  1842,  p.  47. 
AUDUBON  AND  BACHMAN.    Quad.  N.  A.  II,  1851. 
BURMEISTER.    Thiere  Braziliens,  I,  1854. 
BAIRD.    Mammals,  1857,  p.  83. 
GIEBEL.    Saeugethiere,  1859,  p.  876. 
Felis  discolor  SCHREBER.    Saeugeth.,  Ill,  1778. 
Felis  puma  SHAW.    Gen.  Zool.,  1, 1830,  p.  358. 

TRAIL.    Remarks  on  Genus  Felis. 

Mem.  Werner  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  1823. 
BARTLETT.    Breeding  of  larger  Felida3,  etc.,  Proc. 

Zool.  Soc.  London,  1861,  p.  140. 
FITZINGER.    Eevision  der  zur  natuerlich .      Familie  der 

Katzen  gehoerig.    Formen.     Sitz.  math. — nat.  01. 

K.  Akad,  Wiss.    Wien,  1868-1869. 
PUTNAM.    American  Panther.    Am.  Nat.,  1871,  p.  692. 
COUES.  Specimen  of  a  cougar,  Am.  Sportsman,  Jan.  1874. 
BATTY.    Felis  concolor,  Am.  Sportsman,  Apr.  1874. 
OBER.    Florida  panther,  Forest  and  Stream,  Dec.  1874. — 

Standard  Natural  History. 

Few  of  our  native  animals  have  excited  the  imagination,  not 
to  say  fears,  of  the  early  settler  of  America  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  this  largest  truly  North  American  cat.  To  this  fact 
must  be  due  the  great  variety  of  names  by  which  it  is  com- 


[UFI7ERSIT 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  67 

monly  called.  Following  the  universal  fashion  among  the 
colonists  of  applying  familiar  names  to  natural  objects  en 
countered,  this  large  wild  cat  was  early  denominated  "the 
panther,"  although  it  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  leopard, 
which  is  the  true  panther.  More  natural  was  it  to  suppose 
that  the  animals  brought  in  at  first  were  all  females  of  the 
lion  species.  This  presumption  was  given  probability  by  the 
uniform  tawny  color  and  penciled  tail  of  the  puma.  The 
name  "American  lion"  has  clung  to  the  animal  ever  since  and 
served  to  exaggerate  the  prowess  of  the  rather  cowardly 
beast.  The  native  names  cougar  and  puma  are  most  appro- 
priately employed.  The  jaguar  is  the  only  feline  in  America 
which  exceeds  the  puma  in  size.  The  length  of  a  full  grown 
male  of  the  latter  exceeds  five  feet  to  the  root  of  the  tail, 
which  is  about  three  feet  long.  A  female  may  measure  slightly 
less.  When  in  good  condition  the  weight  reaches  150  pounds. 

The  body  is  long  and  slender,  the  head  small,  slender  with 
large  ears  which  have  rounded  conchs.  The  legs  are  short  and 
stout  and  the  feet  are  large.  The  tail  is  cylindrical  and  taper- 
ing and  at  times  is  furnished  with  a  terminal  brush. 

The  fur  is  short  and  soft  but  rather  dull.  The  color  of  the 
body  and  legs  is  a  uniform  fulvous  or  reddish  tint;  the  under 
surface  is  reddish  white;  lighter  and  yellowish  about  the  eyes. 
Black  is  found  only  upon  the  muzzle  and  the  tips  of  the  ears. 
The  general  color  is  described  as  like  that  of  the  Virginia 
deer.  The  young  are  beautifully  and  variously  mottled  and 
barred  with  dark  brown.  The  tail  is  ringed  and  there  is  a 
dusky  patch  upon  the  neck. 

The  puma  ranges  over  the  whole  of  South  America  and  in 
North  America  north  to  latitude  50°-60°.  It  is  never  really 
abundant  and  conforms  in  its  habits  and  dwelling  places  to  the 
exigencies  of  its  habitat.  In  Florida  it  inhabits  the  depths  of 
the  impassable  everglades,  *in  mountainous  regions  it  makes  its 
lair  in  the  rocky  fastnesses  of  rugged  peaks.  In  Texas  it  is 
sometimes  found  in  open  prairies. 

The  puma  is  nocturnal  by  necessity,  rather  than  choice,  and 
sees  quite  well  in  day  light.  It  preys  upon  small  or  feeble 
cattle,  or  such  as  are  mired  or  otherwise  disabled.  Fawns, 
raccoons,  skunks,  birds  and  all  small  animals  are  eaten. 

When  provisions  are  plentiful  the  animal  is  said  to  only 
drink  the  blood  of  its  victims  as  has  been  demonstrated  by 
autopsies.  As  many  as  fifty  sheep  may  be  destroyed  in 
one  night  by  a  single  puma.  In  case  of  scarcity,  on  the 
other  hand,  even  carrion  is  not  discarded. 


68  BULLETIN  NO     VII 

The  courage  is  not  great  and,  unless  impelled  by  hunger  or 
despair,  it  never  attacks  dogs  or  horses — much  less  man. 
During  severe  winters  the  puma  may  be  driven  to  eat  the  por- 
cupine and  there  are  well  authenticated  instances  where  the 
animal  has  fallen  a  victim  to  his  temerity.  The  prey  seems 
not  to  be  carried  to  the  den  which  is  in  contrast  with  the  habit 
of  other  beasts.  It  is  said  to  kill  its  prey  instantly  by  drawing 
back  the  head  with  the  paw  until  the  neck  is  broken .  The 
ordinary  cry  of  the  puma  is  a  sort  of  ''mew"  on  a  larger  scale 
and  more  prolonged  than  that  of  the  domestic  cat.  The  male 
growls  when  disturbed  and,  especially  in  the  pairing  season, 
gives  vent  to  wild  and  unearthly  cries  which  have  wrought 
upon  the  superstitions  of  the  frontiersman. 

It  is  stated  that  the  puma  or  "painter,"  utters  wailing  human 
cries  in  order  to  lure  the  belated  traveler  to  destruction.  All 
such  stories  can  easily  be  understood  if  one  will  take  the  pains 
to  conceive  of  the  result  if  the  caterwauling  of  a  domestic  cat 
were  magnified  four  or  five  times  in  power  and  singularity. 

The  female  makes  an  affectionate  mother.  The  young  are 
carried  96 — 97  days  and  are  suckled  until  half  grown. 

The  young  are  born  in  the  spring  in  northern  regions,  but 
farther  south  considerably  later.  Audubon  found  half-grown 
pumas  in  Texas  in  February, 

Pumas  do  not  hunt  in  packs  as  do  the  various  species  of  the 
dog  family,  but  until  the  kittens  are  grown  they  sometimes 
hunt  in  pairs. 

No  opportunity  has  been  afforded  for  gathering  anatomical 
details  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Audubon  for  additional 
information  as  to  the  habits  of  this  species. 

The  most  recent  occurrence  of  the  puma  in  Minnesota  was 
in  1875  when  a  single  individual  was  killed  in  Sunrise,  Chisago 
Co.  The  following  extracts  contain  all  notices  of  this  animal 
which  I  have  been  able  to  gather 'from  the  earlier  writings: 

In  "Carver's  Travels"  p.  413,  is  the  following  account  of 
the  puma  which  seems  by  the  context  to  be  credited  to  the 
"Chipeway  River."  "The  TYGER.  The  tyger  of  America 
resembles  those  of  Africa  and  Asia,  but  is  considerably  smaller. 
Nor  does  it  appear  to  be  so  fierce  and  ravenous  as  they  are. 
The  color  of  it  is  a  darkish  sallow,  and  it  is  entirely  free  from 
spots."  "It  is  very  seldom  met  with  in  this  part  of  the  world. " 

Mr.  Merriam '  gives  the  following  statement  concerning  the 
panther : 

1  The  mammals  of  the  Adirondack  regions  of  Northeastern  New  York.  C.  Hart  Merriam, 
M.  D.  Also  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Linncean  Society  of  New  York,  1884,  under  the 
same  title. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  69 

"The  distance  that  a  panther  can  pass  over  in  a  single  leap 
is  almost  incredible.  On  level  a  single  spring  of  twenty  feet  is 
by  no  means  uncommon,  and  on  one  occasion  Mr.  Sheppard 
measured  a  leap  over  snow  of  nearly  forty  feet.  In  this  in- 
stance there  were  three  preliminary  springs,  and  the  panther 
struck  his  deer  on  the  fourth.  The  longest  leap  measured  by 
Mr.  Sheppard  was  one  of  sixty  feet,  but  here  the  panther 
jumped  from  a  ledge  of  rocks  about  twenty  feet  above  the  level 
upon  which  the  deer  was  standing.  He  struck  it  with  such 
force  as  to  knock  it  nearly  a  rod  farther  off. 

Under  certain  conditions  of  the  deep  snows  the  deer  cut  in 
so  deeply  that  the  poor  animals  can  make  but  slow  progress. 
At  such  times  a  panther,  by  spreading  the  toes  of  his  great 
broad  paws,  simulates  a  man  on  snow-shoes  and  sinks  but  a 
short  distance  in  the  snow.  He  thus  gains  a  vital  advantage 
over  his  prey,  and  will  now  give  chase  to  and  capture  one  that 
he  missed  on  his  first  spring.  Under  no  other  circumstances 
will  a  panther  pursue  a  deer,  for  he  is  too  well  aware  of  the 
uselessness  of  an  attempt  to  overtake  so  fleet. an  animal.  Im- 
mediately upon  killing  one  he  drags  it  bodily  into  some  dense 
thicket  or  windfall,  where  he  will  not  be  likely  to  be  observed. 
He  has  thus  been  known  to  drag  a  full-grown  deer  consider- 
ably over  a  hundred  feet  before  reaching  a  satisfactory  covert. 
Unlike  the  wolf,  he  makes  the  most  of  his  prey  and  devours 
it  all  before  killing  another.  One  deer  generally  lasts  a 
panther  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  during  that  time  he  may  usu- 
ally be  found  within  a  mile  of  the  carcass,  hidden  under  some 
log  or  uprooted  tree.  Sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  does  he 
partially  bury  it,  after  each  meal,  by  scraping  leaves  and 
brush  over  it.  When  all  but  enough  for  one  or  two  meals  has 
been  eaten,  the  panther,  especially  if  a  female  with  young, 
will  often  make  another  hunt,  but,  if  unsuccessful,  returns  to 
the  remains  of  the  old  carcass." 

At  the  risk  of  repeating  the  substance  of  a  previous  part  of 
this  chapter  we  quote  from  Merriam's  above  mentioned  work 
remarks  upon 

Some  Common  Fallacies  Concerning  Panthers. 

1st.     Concerning  the  alleged  fierceness  of  the  panther. 

"Even  many  very  respectable  works  upon  Natural  History 
contain  the  most  detailed  and  heart-rending  accounts  of  the 
loss  of  human  life  by  the  brutal  attacks  of  these  ferocious 
beasts.  *  *  *  The  illustrious  Audubon,  in  his  great  work 


70  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

upon  the  Quadrupeds  of  North  America,  cautions  the  reader 
not  to  credit  the  legends  of  the  vulgar  in  regard  to  the  ferocity 
of  this  animal,  and  its  propensity  to  attack  man,  and  then  goes 
on  to  picture  midnight  encounters  and  hair-breadth  escapes 
almost  as  thrilling  as  the  story  above  quoted.  Oh,  the  incon- 
sistency of  man!  It  is  now  so  well  known  that  the  panther  is 
one  of  the  most  cowardly  of  beasts,  never  attacking  man  unless 
wounded  and  cornered,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  do  more  than 
contradict  the  popular  impression  to  the  contrary. 

2d.     Concerning  the  method  of  capturing  its  prey. 

It  is  commonly  and  widely  believed,  and  boldly  asserted  in 
print,  that  the  panther  lurks  in  ambush  for  its  prey;  that  it 
lies  in  wait  beside  the  runways  of  the  wary  deer,  hidden  by 
some  rock  or  thicket,  or  crouching  upon  an  overhanging  limb, 
and  falls,  like  a  thunderbolt  from  heaven,  upon  the  back  of  its 
hapless  and  unsuspecting  victim.  Such  romances,  however 
gratifying  to  the  narrator,  and  entertaining  to  the  community, 
are  without  foundation  in  fact.  *  *  * 

3d.     Concerning  the  screams  of  the  panther. 

Who  has  not  heard  of  the  piercing  cries  and  startling  screams 
of  the  panther?  Who  has  listened,  about  the  evening  camp- 
fire,  to  the  tales  of  hunters  and  woodsmen,  but  has  felt  his 
blood  run  cold,  and  his  hat  tighten  on  his  head,  as  the  earnest 
speaker,  perhaps  in  a  whisper,  and  uninterrupted  save  by  the 
sputtering  of  the  fire,  told  of  the  time  when,  alone  in  the  soli- 
tudes of  the  deep  forest,  and  at  the  dead  of  night,  he  was  sud- 
denly awakened  by  a  piercing  scream  that  burst  upon  his  weary 
ears.  It  seemed  like  the  shriek  of  a  woman  in  distress,  or  the 
pitiful  wail  of  a  lost  child.  Half  asleep,  quite  bewildered,  he 
starts  to  his  feet  to  render  assistance,  when  the  glaring  eye 
balls  of  a  fierce  cougar  met  his  horrified  gaze  and  acquainted 
him  with  the  nature  of  his  unwelcome  guest! 

An  attack  of  indigestion,  the  cry  of  a  loon,  or  the  screech  of 
an  owl,  a  piece  phosphorescent  wood  and  a  very  moderate  im 
agination,  are  all  that  are  necessary,  in  the  way  of  material 
and  connctions,  to  build  up  a  thrilling  tale  of  this  description. 
Indeed,  the  writer  once  had  a  bit  of  personal  experience  in  this 
line  that  is  not  yet  forgotten. 

In  conversing  with  honest  hunters  upon  this  point,  it  has 
been  my  uniform  experience  to  find  that  those  who  have  had 
most  to  do  with  panthers  are  most  skeptical  in  regard  to  their 
cries. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  71 

4th.     Concerning  the  size  of  the  panther. 

In  talking  with  border  hunters  of  a  certain  type,  and  in  per- 
using the  literature,  one  is  every  now  and  then  confronted  with 
the  most  fabulous  statements  concerning  the  size  of  the  beast 
now  under  consideration.  Some  would  have  us  believe  that 
panthers  have  been  killed  and  measured  with  a  "two  foot  rule" 
that  were  eleven,  twelve,  and  even  thirteen  feet  in  length 
Formidable  beasts  indeed!  No  less  an  authority  than  James 
DeKay  tells  us,  in  apparent  good  faith,  that  one  was  killed  on 
an  island  in  Fourth  Lake  (of  the  Fulton  chain)  in  Herkimer 
county,  that,  when  recently  killed,  "had  a  total  length  of  eleven 
feet  three  inches".  To  those  who  are  inclined  to  credit  such 
statements  I  have  only  to  say,  measure  off  eleven  feet  on  your 
floor;  place  the  largest  panther  you  ever  saw  on  this  measured 
line,  and  then  tell  me  on  what  part  of  the  beast  you  would 
"annex"  or  "splice  on"  the  three  or  more  additional  feet. 

5th.     Concerning  the  way  a  panther  carries  its  prey. 

We  often  see  statements  to  the  effect  that  a  panther  has  kill- 
ed a  deer  or  a  young  bullock,  slung  it  over  his  back  and 
marched  off  (perhaps  up  an  embankment,  or  even  climbed  a 
tree)  with  it.  A  panther  drags  a  deer  along  the  ground  just  as 
a  dog  drags  a  sheep,  or  a  cat  a  big  piece  of  meat,  and,  if  he  is 
a  large  one,  he  may  be  able  to  lift  the  deer  so  high  that  only 
the  hinder  parts  drag. 


Felis  domestica  LINN, 

DOMESTIC  CAT. 

The  common  domestic  cat  stands,  as  regards  size,  at  nearly 
the  other  end  of  the  series  of  true  cats  inaugurated  in  America 
by  the  jaguar  and  puma.  At  the  time  America  was  disco verd 
all  civilized  nations  had  adopted  this  animal  and  it  had  become 
a  part  of  man's  family  wherever  homes  were  known.  With 
most  of  us  there  is  something  lacking  in  the  cheer  of  the 
chimney  corner  without  the  contented  purr  of  a  favorite  cat, 
and  tabby  has  come  to  be  associated  with  the  innocent  pleas- 
ures of  childhood  and  with  home  comforts  in  maturer  life. 

A  very  full  account  of  all  that  is  known  about  pussy  and  her 
family  may  be  found  in  St.  George  Mivart's  "The  Cat,"  Lon- 
don, 1881.  As  in  the  case  of  most  of  our  domestic  animals, 
the  proper  combination  of  qualities  for  permanent  domestica- 


72  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

tion  seems  to  have  been  obtained  by  the  union  of  several  dif- 
ferent races  or  species.  Our  cat  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a 
union  of  the  common  wild  cat  of  Europe,  Fells  catus,  and  the 
Egyptian  cat,  Felis  maniculata.  The  cat  was  certainly  domes- 
ticated in  Egypt  at  a  very  early  date  and  was  an  object  of  ven- 
eration. In  Herodotus'  time  the  cats  of  a  house  constituted  in 
some  sort  the  Penates  or  household  gods.  Both  cats  and  dogs 
were  early  introduced  into  Italy,  both  being  indicated  in  fres- 
coes of  Pompeii.  The  variation  in  coloration  and  form  is  con- 
siderable, although  far  less  than  in  some  other  domestic  ani- 
mals. What  is  called  the  tabby  variety  is  thought  to  have  re- 
sulted from  the  admixture  of  wild  cat  blood.  In  the  case  of 
the  tortoiseshell  cat,  we  have  an  instance  of  a  difference  in 
coloration  between  the  sexes,  males  being  all  but  universally 
grey.  The  blue  cats,  or  Carthusian  breed,  are  of  a  bluish 
grey  color  and  have  fine,  long,  soft  pelage.  The  Angora  cat, 
too,  is  especially  remarkable  for  its  fine,  long  hair  as  well  as 
its  large  size.  The  tailless  manx  cat  is  an  interesting  variety ' 
with  a  tendency  toward  the  reduction  of  the  size  of  the  fore 
legs.  Malay  cats  also  have  short  tails.  The  habits  of  the  do- 
mestic cat  are  sufficiently  well  known  and  appreciated.  In 
America  there  is,  of  course,  some  change  in  the  diet,  but,  in 
general,  the  cat  maybe  said  to  travel  with  her  own  commissariat 
as  the  army  of  European  pests  usually  keep  pace  with  the 
cat's  emigrations.  In  our  state  the  field  mice  form  no  consid- 
erable part  of  pussy's  diet  at  times,  but  the  staple  is  always 
Mus  domestica.  Many  cats  capture  the  gopher,  Spermophilus, 
habitually,  although  it  seems  not  to  be  relished  as  well  as 
murine  food.  The  cat  at  times  becomes  -partially  insectivorous 
and  feeds  upon  crickets  or  g?  '  shnr>p^.r$,  but  it  appears  that 
these  serve  as  a  relish  or  ccndiment  simply.  No  cases  have 
fallen  under  my  notice  of  cats  capturing  rabbits,  except  when 
the  latter  are  still  very  young.  Darwin  has  given  us  an  inter- 
esting example  of  the  coherence  of  nature  in  the  dependence 
of  the  price  of  clover  seed  upon  cats,  via.  field  mice  and  bumble 
bees. 


GENUS  LYNX. 
See  remarks  under  Felidse. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  73 


Lynx  rufus  (GM. )  RAF. 

WILD  CAT. 

Felis  rufa  GMELIN,  SCHREBER,  DESMAREST,  F.  CUVIER. 

BLATNVJLLE.    GULDENSTEIN,  TEMMINCK. 

LESSING.    GEOFFROY  ST.  HILLAIRE,  FISCHER. 

GERVAIS  .    BLYTH. 

Lynx  floridiana  RAFINESQUE.    Am.  Month.  Mag..  1817. 
Lyncus  rufus  GRAY.    P.  Z.  S.,  1867. 

DEKAY.    Nat.  Hist.  N.  Y.,  1842. 
Felix  montana  DESMABEST,  LESSING,  HARLAN. 

LECONTE.    P.  A.  N,  S.,  Phila.,  1856. 
Felis  maculata  YIG.  AND  HORSF.    Zool .  Journ. ,  1829. 

LESSING.    Comp.  Buff.,  1839,  etc. 
Lynx  rufus  RAFINESQUE.    Am  Month.  Mag.,  1817. 

AUD.  AND  BACH.    Quad.,  N.  A. 

MARCY.    Expl.  Bed  R.,  1852. 

NEWBERRY.    Pacif.  R.  R.,  Rep.  VI,  1857. 

BAIRD.    Mam.,  N.  A. 

ALLEN.    Bull.  M.  C.  Z.,  1871. 

COUES  AND  YARROW.    Surv.  100th  Mer.,  1875. 

MERRIAM.    Mam.  Adiron.,  1874. 

Out  of  over  a  dozen  specimens  of  wild  cat  examined,  none 
presented  the  characters  attributed  to  L.  canadensis.  It  would 
not  therefore  be  competent  for  me  to  discuss  the  validity  of  the 
two  species  or  their  relations,  but  it  may  be  confidently  stat- 
ed that  if  there  are  two  species  in  Minnesota,  our  sportsmen 
are  much  at  fault.  I  was  repeatedly  shown  specimens  of 
"Lynx"  which  uniformly  proved  to  be  L.  rufus,  but  all  hunters 
claim  that  two  species  exist,  though  distinctive  characters 
apart  from  difference  in  size  could  never  be  found. 

It  is  preferable,  however,  to  proceed  with  the  description  of 
the  one  known  variable  species. 

The  earliest  account  of  the  wild  cat  from  Minnesota,  seems 
to  be  this  from  Carver's  travels,  p.  416.  "The  cat  of  the  mount- 
ains. This  creature  is  in  shape  like  a  cat,  only  much  larger. 
The  hair  or  fur  resembles  also  the  skin  of  that  domestic  ani- 
mal; the  color,  however,  differs,  for  the  former  is  of  a  reddish 
or  orange  cast,  but  grows  lighter  near  the  belly.  The  whole 
skin  is  beautified  with  black  spots  of  different  figures,  of  which 
those  on  the  back  are  long,  and  those  on  the  lower  parts 
round.  On  the  ears  are  black  stripes.  The  creature  is  nearly 
as  fierce  as  a  leopard,  but  will  seldom  attack  man." 
-5 


74  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

The  adult  female  is  about  three  feet  long.  The  following 
measurements  may  be  accepted  as  characteristic: 

Length,  3  ft. ;  head  and  body,  2  ft.  6  in. ;  tail,  6  in. ;  fore  foot 
to  callosity,  3.75;  hind  foot,  6.75;  nose  to  corner  of  eye,  1.50; 
nose  to  ear  opening,  4.50;  nose  to  occiput,5.37;  breadth  of  head, 
425. 

The  base  of  the  fur  is  tawny  black,  the  middle  buffy  yellow, 
terminal  portion  white,  or  white  followed  by  longer  or  shorter 
black  band.  Ear  tips  black,  pencil  well  developed.  Below  the 
terminal  white  portion  is  long,  concealing  the  others.  Thighs 
externally  spotted  and  lighter,  obscurely  barred  within.  The 
upper  arm  is  slightly  barred  externally,  while  internally  there 
are  several  wide  black  bars.  In  the  middle  of  the  back  the 
whole  base  of  fur  is  black,  the  tips  only  being  white.  The  tail 
is  tipped  with  white.  The  ruff  is  moderately  long  and  is  com- 
posed of  rather  stiff  harsh  hairs.  The  above  description  ap- 
plies to  the  winter  pelage.  As  early  as  February  the  whole 
skin  takes  on  the  rufous  tint  before  nearly  confined  to  the 
flanks.  In  spring  specimens,  the  base  of  the  fur  was  pale  Van- 
dyke brown.  In  the  yearling  the  head  is  of  nearly  the  same 
size  as  the  adult.  The  color  seems  independent  of  sex. 

During  severe  weather  the  wild  cat  is  often  forced  to  feed 
upon  the  porcupine,  and  it  is  of  no  infrequent  occurrence  that 
she  pays  for  her  timerity  with  her  life .  I  have  several  times 
secured  them  with  the  head  and  throat  filled  with  the  spines, 
rendering  the  animals  helpless.  Such  specimens  were  invari- 
ably very  poor  and  emaciated. 

FAMILY  CANID^. 

The  dog  family,  although  brought  into  closer  relations  with 
the  cat  group,  through  the  hyenas,  is  remarkable  for  rigid  ad- 
herence to  one  type  of  structure  and  general  habitus.  The 
group,  although  a  closed  one,  shows  the  most  intimate  connec- 
tion between  most,  if  not  all,  of  its  species. 

Six  genera  are  recognized,  of  which  the  largest  is  Canis  or 
that  containing  the  dogs  and  wolves,  the  latter  forming  the 
subgenus  Lupus,  while  the  foxes  constitute  the  genus  Vulpes 
The  domestic  dog  furnishes  a  familiar  and  sufficient  illustration 
of  the  external  characters  of  the  family. 

The  body  varies  in  form,  but  is  neither  adapted  to  aquatic 
nor  arboreal  life,  and  the  rather  long,  straight  legs  show  the 
method  of  progression  to  be  running  simply.  The  head  is 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  75 

rather  long  and  has  a  pointed  muzzle  and  pointed  erect  ears. 
The  claws  are  not  retractile  but  are  worn  off  by  contact 
with  the  earth.  Pew  species  are  strictly  fossorial  though 
many  dig  rapidly  upon  occasion.  The  tail  is  of  moder-" 
ate  length  and  is  most  frequently  covered  by  bushy  hairs  and 
is  less  flexible  than  in  most  of  the  Felidce.  The  color  is  usually 
rather  uniform,  and  only  in  a  few  cases  vivid,  and  although  the 
fur  is  thick  is  rarely  of  any  commercial  value.  The  teeth  are 
strong  and  less  specialized  than  in  the  cats.  The  general 
.  formula  is  as  follows: — milk  teeth  f.  }-.  f=32;  permanent  teeth 
f.  $.  J.  |=42.  The  incisors  are  small  and  three  lobed  above  and 
two-lobed  below.  The  canines  are  long  and  curved  and  some- 
what flattened  laterally.  The  fourth  upper  premolar  is  the 
sectorial  tooth,  being  composed  of  two  trenchant  blades  or 
cones;  from  the  base  of  the  anterior  blade  springs  a  tubercle. 
The  lower  sectorial  is  formed  by  the  first  molar. 

In  the  genus  Cyon,  found  in  India,  there  is  one  molar  less  be- 
low on  either  side  making  the  whole  number  40.  The  genus 
Otocyon,  represented  by  a  small  fox-like  dog  in  South  Africa, 
has  46  to  48  teeth  by  the  addition  of  one  molar  below  and  one 
or  two  above  on  either  side.  In  some  instances  there  are  but 
four  claws  upon  the  fore  feet  but  usually  the  thumb,  although 
elevated  above  the  other  digits,  has  a  perfect  claw  while  the 
hind  feet  are  four- toed.  Most  species  secure  their  prey  through 
their  superior  speed  and  endurance  but,  as  they  hunt  in  packs, 
what  speed  is  unable  to  accomplish  is  brought  about  by  con- 
certed pursuit.  In  like  manner,  although  individually  very 
cowardly,  the  wild  dogs  are  formidable  enemies  of  the  largest 
wild  beasts  and  are  much  dreaded  by  man  himself.  It  is  that 
social  instinct  so  foreign  to  the  cat  family  which  makes  the  dog 
dependent  upon  other  members  of  his  race  or,  when  domesti- 
cated, upon  the  will  of  his  master  to  a  larger  extent  than  in 
most  animals,  which  makes  him  so  well  adapted  for  the  com- 
panionship of  overbearing  man.  Although  carnivorous,  many 
species  seem  to  prefer  carrion  and  not  a  few  will  adapt  them- 
selves to  a  partly  vegetable  diet.  The  sense  of  smell  is  the 
most  highly  developed  of  the  senses  and  is  more  acute  in  this 
family  than  in  any  other.  The  ear  is  also  well  developed  but 
the  eye,  even  in  nocturnal  species,  is  not  particularly  keen.  The 
bark  of  the  domestic  dog  seems  to  be  a  result  of  association 
with  man,  all  wild  dogs  indulging  their  mood  and  venting  their 
feelings  in  demoniacal  howls. 


76  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  Canidce  possess  anal  glands  affording  an  odor  of  more 
or  less  power.  As  has  been  said,  the  dogs  are  found  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  globe  where  carnivorous  mammals  occur. 
Even  in  Australia  which  has  no  other  endemic  placental  mam- 
mal, the  Dingo  or  native  dog  represents  this  family,  although 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  this  species  was  simply  in- 
troduced in  an  early  period.  As  regards  their  origin  we  know 
that  while  no  clearly  marked  representative  of  the  Canidae 
lived  during  the  Eocene  period,  there  were  nevertheless  ani- 
mals which  possessed  similar  characters,  more  or  less  masked 
by  inter- relationships  with  the  other  carnivorous  families. 

In  the  Miocene  true  representatives  of  the  group  are  found. 
It  would  appear  that  the  various  families  of  Carnivora  have  in 
the  main  remained  in  the  geographical  regions  where  they 
were  first  brought  to  special  development.  Thus  hyenas  are 
now,  as  then,  restricted  to  the  old  world  and  the  raccoons  to 
the  western  hemisphere.  The  views  of  naturalists  are  as  yet 
by  no  means  identical  as  to  the  probable  origin  of  Carnivora  in 
general,  most  assuming  a  Marsupial  or  Marsupial  like  if  non- 
Marsupial  progenitor.* 

The  origin  of  the  domestic  dog  from  one  or  more  species  of 
wild  dogs  cannot  be  denied.  But  it  is  not  possible  to  place  the 

*We  add  a  list  of  the  more  important  species  of  the  genera  of*  the 
Canidae. 
Genus  Canis. 

C.  lupus.    Europe,  Asia  and  North  America. 

C.  latrans.    Prairies  of  Central  K.  America. 

C.  cancrivorus.    Guiana. 

C.  jubatus.    Brazil. 

C.  antarcticus.    Falkland  Ids. 

C.  lupaster,  C.  (lupus?)    N.  Africa. 

C.  familiaris.    Domestic  dog. 

C.  hodopylax.    Japan. 

C.  aureus  (Jackal).    Africa  and  S.  Asia. 

C.  mesomelas.    S.  Africa. 

C.  dingo.    Australia. 
Genus  Vulpes. 

V.  vulpes.    Europe,  Asia,  N.  America  and  N.  Africa. 

V.  corsac.    India,  central  Asia,  Asia  minor. 

V.  zerda.    N.  Africa. 

V.  lagopus.    (Polar  fox.) 

(?)  V.  velox.    Central  North  America. 

V.  virginianus.    Southern  United  States. 

V.  azarce.    South  America. 

V.  magellanicus.    Extreme  S.  America. 
Genus  Nyctereutes. 

(?)  N. procyonoides.    China  and  Japan. 

N.  viverrinus.    Japan. 
Genus  Otocyon. 

O.  megalotis.    South  Africa. 
Genus  Lycaon. 

L.  pictus. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  77 

finger  on  any  one  species  of  wolf  and  say  this  is  the  stock  from 
which  the  dog  sprang.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  domestic 
dog  in  countries  where  only  partially  domesticated  resembles 
very  closely  its  wild  neighbors,  while  in  more  civilized  lands 
where  the  dog  has  become  the  companion  of  iran,  it  is  more 
difficult  to  detect  the  resemblance  to  any  wild  race.  The  mon- 
uments of  Egypt  contain  drawings  of  various  species  of  do 
mestic  dogs  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  every  period  and  in 
all  countries  man  has  brought  this  willing  servant  under  his 
yoke.  Careful  investigations  therefore  seem  to  have  proved 
that  our  various  races  of  dogs  have  been  derived  from  various 
species  of  wild  dogs  with  round  pupils  which  different  peoples 
have  independently  domesticated  and  finally  caused  to  in 
terbreed.  The  influences  of  civilization  have  constantly  in- 
creased the  natural  tendency  to  variation  until  different  breeds 
of  dogs  differ  from  each  other  more  than  the  most  widely 
diverse  species  of  the  wild  representatives  of  the  genus  Canis. 
In  Minnesota  we  have  representatives  of  two  genera,  and  but 
three  species. 

GENUS  CANIS.    LINN. 

This  genus  contains  the  larger  species  with  long  limbs  and 
round  pupils;  the  post-orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone  is  very 
convex,  curving  strongly  downward.  The  fox- like  wolves  of 
South  America  furnish  the  transition  between  the  genera  Canis 
and  Vulpes. 

Canis  lupus  L. 

The  evidence  that  our  timber-wolf,  so  called,  is  identical  with 
the  wolf  of  Europe,  has  been  very  complete,  even  since  the 
days  of  Richardson,  and,  although  Prof.  Baird  cast  the  great 
weight  of  nis  opinion  against  such  identity,  the  greater  number 
of  modern  authors  in  Europe  as  well  as  America,  now  consider 
them  the  same.  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen  in  his  list  of  the  ''Mammalia 
of  Massachusetts"  has  summarized  the  evidence  in  a  way  quite 
satisfactory  to  the  writer,  and  we  shall  enter  into  no  discussion 
of  the  subject. 

The  following  tabulation  of  the  varieties  found  is  extracted 
from  the  Zoology  of  the  100th  Meridian  Reports. 

a.  WHITE  WOLVES — Canis  lupus,  albus  SABINE,  etc. 
White,  pure  or  washed  with  yellowish,  with  or  without 
black-tipped  tail.  Among  the  largest.  Northerly  or 
Alpine. 


78  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

b.  GRIZZLED  WOLVES — C.   variabilis  MAXIM.,  etc.     White, 

more  or  less  extensively  grizzled  with  gray.  Large, 
and  rather  northerly. 

c.  GRAY  AND  BRINDLED  WOLVES — C.  lupus  (Auct).    Gray, 

of  variable  shade  and  pattern,  generally  brindled, 
darker  dorsally,  paler  or  white  below,  little  or  no 
rufous.  Medium  size .  Most  general  distribution. 

d.  RED    WOLVES — C.  lupus,  var.  rufus  AUD.  AND    BACH. 

Mixed,  reddish  and  black,  paler  below,  small.  South- 
erly, especially  Texas. 

e.  DUSKY  WOLVES — G.  nubilus  SAY.     Dusky  or    plumbe- 

ous brown,  with  or  without  darker  muzzle  bands  and 
leg  stripe.  Small,  chiefly  southerly. 

/.     BLACK  WOLVES — C.  lupus,  ater    RICHARDSON.     Black. 
Small,  southerly,  Florida. 

The  wolf  drawn  on  Plate  VI  measured  over  four  feet  in  length, 
tail,  19  in.;  nose  to  eye,  5;  nose  to  ear,  nearly  9;  nose  to  tip  of 
ear,  12;  eye  to  eye,  3^.  The  lower  canine  was  li  long.  Weight 
85  Ibs. 

The  following  incidents  were  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Upham 
and  illustrate  certain  traits  of  wolf  character: 

"Mr.  John  D.  Wilcox,  of  Pine  City,  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  Pine 
county,  told  me  that  about  the  year  1860,  when  he  lived  at  Sunrise  in 
Chisago  county,  having  worked  through  a  winter  clay  in  the  woods,  mak- 
ing sugar-troughs,  one  and  a  half  miles  from  home,  which  was  at  Sunrise, 
he  was  chased  by  a  half  dozen  or  more  wolves,  which  he  saw  bounding  up 
and  down  in  their  pursuit  on  his  track,  and  heard  their  yelping;  with  the 
greatest  haste  possible  he  got  across  the  open  land  where  he  then  was  and 
climbed  up  into  a  tree,  but  only  barely  in  time  to  save  himself,  for  the 
wolves  were  immediately  at  the  tree,  jumping  up,  yelping,  and  making 
the  evening  hideous.  This  continued  two  hours  or  more,  the  wolves  ail 
the  time  howling  and  leaping  up,  their  eyes  glowing  like  coals  of  fire. 
Finally  they  got  into  a  flght  among  themselves  and  turned  off  into  a 
neighboring  swamp.  This  flght  with  much  crashing  of  the  alders,  snarl- 
ing and  yelping  of  the  wolves,  and  joy  of  Mr.  W.  to  hear  his  foes  waging 
war  on  each  other,  lasted  an  hour  or  so;  then  all  became  as  still  as  death, 
he  finally  got  down  and  escaped  home.  His  axe,  left  at  the  foot  of  the 
tree,  had  its  handle  so  gnawed  and  split  ttiat  it  was  spoiled.  Woodsmen 
have  a  saying  that  when  a  pack  of  wolves  thus  are  foiled  and  lose  their 
expected  prey,  they  turn  on  the  wolf  that  first  led  them  into  the  pursuit 
and  slay  him. 

The  same  winter  (or  rather,  spring,)  a  Swede  a  few  miles  from  Sunrise, 
making  maple  sugar  at  night  and  going  out  to  gather  sap,  was  attacked 
by  wolves,  and  is  said  to  have  been  wholly  eaten  up,  not  a  bone  being  left, 
except  his  feet,  which  were  gnawed  as  far  down  as  the  wolves  could  reach 
into  his  boots;— only  shreds  and  small  scraps  of  his  clothing  were  found. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  79 

In  the  winter  of  1877  or  1878,  Mr.  Wilcox.had  been  to  do  some  surveying 
on  the  upper  part  of  Sand  creek,  east  of  Kettle  river.  Returning  to  Pine 
City  through  the  woods  with  no  roads,  he  heard  a  wolf  cry  behind  him  as 
early  as  nine  o'clock  in  the  forenoon;  and,  looking  back,  he  saw  him  with- 
in a  distance  of  twenty  rods.  On  being  shouted  at  this  wolf  turned  back; 
but  within  a  half  hour  others,  hearing  his  howls,  had  joined  him,  and 
about  the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  looking  back  across  a  little  swamp  that 
he  had  crossed,  Mr.  W.  saw  three  wolves  coming  along  on  his  track,  every 
now  and  then  putting  down  their  noses  to  the  scent  and  uttering  short 
yelps.  This  was  at  a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  or  more  from  his  home, 
and  he  would  probably  see  no  human  being  till  reaching  his  own  door,  at 
the  south  end  of  Cross  lake,  a  half  mile  southeast  of  Pine  City.  To  be 
pursued  and  treed  would  be  to  starve  to  death.  An  expedient  never  before 
heard  of  by  Mr.  W.,  saved  his  life.  Passing  through  a  piece  of  birch 
woods,  he  stripped  off  a  large  amount  of  the  bark  and  made  a  fire  of  it 
exactly  in  his  path.  Then  he  hurried  on, — and  soon,  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  when  the  wolves  came  up  to  this  fire,  they  made  all  the  woods 
ring  with  their  howls  of  astonishment,  rage,  and  disappointment.  Their 
cries  continued  to  be  heard  for  an  hour,  or  to  the  distance  of  fully  two 
miles;  but  as  he  heard  no  more  of  them  later,  he  supposes  Lone  of  them 
ventured  beyond  this  barrier  of  fire. 

This  danger  from  wolves  is  only  in  the  last  part  of  winter  and  spring; 
and  their  chasing  lone  travelers  at  other  seasons  has  never  been  heard  of. 

During  the  winter  of  1884-85,  wolves  became  very  abundant 
and  insolent  in  Wright  county,  and  were  seen  about  the  out- 
skirts of  Monticello  in  broad  daylight  almost  daily,  though 
they  were  sufficiently  wary  to  escape  capture. 


Canis  latrans  SAY. 

COYOTE. 

Canis  latrans  SAY,  HAUL  AN,  AUDUBON,  BAIRD,  Co  TIES,  etc. 
Canis  frustror  WOODHOUSE. 
Canis  ochropus  ESCHSCH,  etc. 

The  occurrence  of  the  prairie  wolf  in  Minnesota  must  rest 
on  other  than  personal  information.  I  presume  it  is  still  not 
infrequent  in  the  south-western  counties. 

Color  dingy  white,  suffused  above  with  tawny  or  grey. 
The  light  ground  color  is  marked  by  obscure  streaks  of  black, 
especially  on  the  back  and  hips.  The  top  of  the  muzzle,  ears, 
and  outsides  of  legs  is  tan  color. 

Entire  length,  54  inches,  of  which  the  tail  measures  18,  nose 
to  eye,  4;  nose  to  ear,  8;  nose  to  occiput,  8-9;  hight  at  should- 
er,  24.  In  general  the  size  and  proportions  are  those  of  a  fair 
sized  pointer  dog. 


80  BULLETIIN   NO.    VII. 

The  coyote  is  a  familiar  pest  upon  the  plains  of  the  central 
United  States,  and  is  a  very  persistent,  if  cowardly  neighbor. 
Its  food  varies  with  the  exigencies  of  its  situation.  While  it 
prefers  live  game,  and  shows  much  endurance  in  its  pursuit,  it 
will  not  reject  offal  and  the  refuse  from  the  campers  meals.  It 
will  follow  a  party  long  distances  subsisting  on  what  is  thrown 
away.  When  hard  pressed,  however,  it  has  recourse  to  vege- 
table substances,  such  as  the  fruit  of  the  prickly  pear,  juniper 
and  other  berries.  The  howl  is  remarkably  melancholy,  and 
does  not  tend  to  enliven  the  solitude  of  its  domain  It  consists 
of  a  short  quick  bark,  followed  by  others  in  quick  succession 
in  ascending  gamut,  until  they  are  combined  in  one  long  drawn 
wail.  The  clamor  is  greatest  at  night-fall  and  continues 
through  the  night  at  intervals,  breaking  up  with  a  noisy  de- 
monstration at  daybreak. 

Dr.  Coues  insists  on  the  close  similarity  between  the  coyote 
and  the  ancestor  of  the  domestic  dog.  The  Indian  dog  inter- 
breeds freely,  it  is  asserted,  with  the  wild  animal  and  the 
crosses  are  perfectly  fertile. 

The  female  after  a  period  gestation  similar  to  that  of  the 
dog  brings  forth  five  or  six  puppies  in  secluded  spots,  caverns 
or  recesses  in  the  rocks.  The  only  available  means  of  des- 
troying these  wolves  seems  to  be  poison,  as  they  avoid  traps 
sedulously. 

GENUS  VULPES. 

The  foxes  differ  from  wolves  and  dogs  in  their  elliptical 
pupil,  bushy  tail,  more  slender  form,  unlobed  upper  incisors 
and  form  of  the  postorbital  process.  South  America  furnishes 
a  perfect  transition  in  its  wolf-like  foxes  with  circular  pupils. 
Aside  from  the  Arctic  fox  which  is  circumpolar  this  genus  con- 
tains F.  velox  and  F.  macrus  of  the  plains  (neither  of  which  is 
known  from  Minnesota)  and  the  red  fox. 

Tulpes  Yulgaris  L. 

This  familiar  animal  is  distributed  over  the  whole  north  tem- 
perate region  and  is  everywhere  very  variable.  There  is  some 
little  reason  to  suppose  that  the  red  fox  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  if  not  by  man,  at  least  later  than  the  gray  fox, 
the  bones  of  which  are  found  abundantly  in  bone  caverns. 

The  red  fox  is  about  40  inches  long,  the  tail  occupying  ]  8 
inches.  Hight  12-14  inches.  In  the  ordinary  variety  the 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  81 

general  color  is  tawny  red,  rather  darker  on  the  shoulders 
and  flanks.  The  tail  hairs  are  dark  tipped;  the  outside  of  the 
legs  and  back  of  ears  are  also  black.  The  under  parts  includ- 
ing the  chin  and  a  space  about  the  muzzle  and  also  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  are  white. 

The  variations  from  this  pattern  are  now  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  due  to  melanism  for  which  no  satisfactory  cause  can 
be  assigned.  Complete  melanism  gives  us  the  Black  or  Silver- 
Gray  Fox  (V.  argentatus).  In  high  latitudes  often  quite  black 
save  the  tip  of  the  tail.  Elsewhere  this  phase  consists  in  a 
silvery  gray  coloration  of  the  upper  parts. 

Intermediate  conditions  give  rise  to  the  Cross-Fox  (V. 
decussatus)  in  which  the  ventral  line,  muzzle  and  legs  are 
blackish,  with  two  cross  bars  on  the  inside  of  the  legs.  The 
median  line  above  is  also  dark  and  is  crossed  by  a  dark  shoulder 
band.  The  head  is  gray  and  the  sides  are  marked  with  fulvous. 

It  is  authoritatively  stated  that  these  so-called  varieties  may 
be  found  in  the  same  litter,  though  to  what  extent  the  varia- 
tions are  inherited,  is  not  known.  Audubon  gives  an  interest- 
ing case  of  this  sort.  The  usual  food  of  foxes  seems  to  be  field 
and  wood  mice  and  rabbits,  and  it  is  probable  that  their  efforts 
in  this  direction  deserve  to  palliate  their  occasional  forays  on 
the  poultry  yard.  We  are  fortunately  exempt  in  this  country 
from  the  mania  for  fox  hunting  prevalent  in  Europe,  though  it 
might  be  well  if  some  other,  if  less  exciting  inducement  to 
equestrian  exercise,  could  be  secured.  The  fox  hunts  alone  or 
in  families,  and  is  thus  unlike  the  wolves.  The  young  are  five 
to  seven  in  number  and  are  tenderly  nurtured,  it  being  during 
the  rearing  of  this  growing  family  that  the  fox  becomes  most 
audacious  and  destructive.  It  would  be  idle  to  recount  tales 
of  the  acumen  of  the  fox,  though  one  is  tempted  to  revert  to 
the  folk  lore  of  the  south  as  illustrating  a  tendency  to  present 
another  view  of  Reynard. 

Anyone,  who  like  the  writer  has  watched  unobserved  the 
playful  gambols  of  a  family  of  young  foxes,  will  have  a  weak- 
ness for  the  gay  pests  ever  after. 

GENUS  U  ROC  YON. 

This  genus  is  distinguished  from  the  foxes,  of  the  genus  Vul- 
pes,  by  the  fact  that  the  crests  for  the  insertion  of  the  temporal 
muscles  are  widely  separate,  by  the  presence  of  a  supplementary 
tubercle  on  the  lower  sectorial  and  a  mane  of  rigid  hairs  on  the 
tail. 


82  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Urocyon  cinero-argentatus  SCHREB, 

Vulpes  virginianus  AUCT. 

It  is  questionable  whether  the  frequent  accounts  of  gray 
foxes  in  Minnesota  do  not  rest  on  mistaken  identification.  At 
any  rate,  this  species  is  rather  a  southern  animal,  being  the 
most  abundant  form  in  Virginia,  westward  to  Arizona  and  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  size  is  that  of  the  red  fox,  though  the  proportions  are 
more  robust.  The  prevailing  color  is  a  clear  gray,  darkest 
dorsally.  The  sides  are  more  or  less  tawny  or  fulvous,  muzzle 
with  black  band,  under  surface  of  head,  white.  The  tip  of  the 
ail  is  blackish.  The  most  remarkable  character  is  that  already 
referred  to  by  which  this  genus  has  been  called  that  of  mane- 
tailed  foxes. 

The  gray  fox  is  a  woodland  animal  and  does  not  form  ex- 
tended burrows.  It  is  said  to  climb  with  some  degree  of  agil- 
ity. It,  therefore,  is  first  to  be  driven  out  by  the  advance  of 
civilization.  Indeed  it  is  more  easily  eradicated  from  its  fail- 
ure to  take  to  the  earth. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


83 


FAMILY  MUSTELINE. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  7. 


No.  1. 
No.  2. 
No.  3. 

N>.  4. 


Meles  taxus-  European  Badger.  No.  5. 

Conepatus  suffocans  -Brazilian  sp.  No  6. 

Oulo  luscus— Glutton.  No.  7. 
My  dam  telagon  of  Java. 


Lyncodon  patagonicus 
Galtetis  barbata— South  America. 
Ratelm  capemis  —  African  Honey 
Badger. 


Carnivorous  mammals  of  various  form  and  habits  chiefly  in- 
teresting on  account  of  the  dense  pelt  which  frequently  becomes 
an  article  of  great  commercial  value. 
The  following  technical  characters  may  be  first  given: 
Skull  with  paroccipital  processes  distant  from  bulla;  mastoid  processes 
prominent,  the  various  sutures  usually  closing  very  completely.    Clavicles 
rudimentary  or  absent;  scaphoid  and  lunar  carpals  coalescent;  digits 
clawed.    Limbs  and  tail  free  and  perfect,  the  former  adapted  for  terres- 
trial progression.    Placenta  zonary,  deciduous.    Intestine  without  a  cse- 


84  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

cum.  Cowper's  glands  absent.  Dentition  consisting  of  twelve  incisors 
(except  in  the  Sea  Otter)  of  similar  form,  four  canines  which  are  not  furn- 
ished with  a  sharp  angle  or  ridges  behind,  a  variable  number  of  premolars, 
and  one  pair  of  molars  above  and  two  below  (except  in  the  Honey  Badgers.) 
Anal  glands  secreting  a  strong  odor  always  present. 

As  will  be  seen  beyond,  this  family  contains  a  number  of 
quite  unlike  groups.  Some  of  the  Mustelidce  are  highly  aquatic, 
others  dwell  almost  exclusively  in  trees,  while  many  are  strictly 
terrestrial.  The  economic  importance  of  the  family  is  derived 
from  the  large  number  of  fur  bearing  animals  it  includes.  The 
ermine,  sable,  marten,  otter,  mink,  etc.  all  are  members  of  the 
group.  The  northern  hemisphere  is  the  home  of  the  family, 
although  there  are  representatives  in  Africa  and  South  Amer- 
ica. We  append  Dr.  Gill's  synopsis  of  the  sub-families  and 
add  a  brief  review  of  the  group  before  taking  up  our  native 
species. 

FAMILY  MUSTELIDCE. 

I.  Skull  with  the  cerebral  portion  comparatively  compressed  backwards; 
and  with  the  rostral  portion  comparatively  produced,  attenuated, 
and  transversely  convex  above;  anteorbitalforamen  small  and  opening 
forwards.  Feet  with  little  developed  or  no  interdigital  membrane. 

A.  Auditory  bulla  much   inflated,  undivided,  bulging,  and  convex  for- 
wards; periotic  region  extending  little  outwards  or  backwards.  Palate 
moderately  emarginated. 

1.  Last  molar  of  upper  jaw  transverse  (with  the  inner  ledge  inflated 
at  its  inner  angle);  sectorial  tooth  with  a  single  inner  cusp. 

a.  Molars  i;  first  true  molar  (sectorial)  of  lower  jaw  followed  by  a 
second  (tubercular)  one.  Toes  short  regularly  arched,  and  with  the 
last  phalanges  bent  up,  withdrawing  the  claws  into  sheaths. 
[Weasels] — M  USTELIN^E. 

6.  Molars  J-;  first  true  molar  (sectorial)  of  lower  jaw  only  developed. 
Toes  straight,  with  the  last  phalanges  and  claws  extended;  the 
latter  non-retractile.  [Honey  Badgers]— MELLIVORIN^E. 

#.  Molars  1;  last  molar  of  upper  jaw  enlarged  and  more  or  less  ex- 
tended longitudinally.  Toes  straight  with  the  last  phalanges  and 
claws  extended;  the  latter  non-retractile.  [Badgers]—  MELIN.E. 

B.  Auditory  bulla  elongated  and  extending  backward  close  to  the  par- 
occipital  process.    Palate  moderately  emarginated. 

1.  Last  molar  of  upper  jaw  transverse;  (with  the  inner  ledge  nar- 
rowed inwards);  sectorial  tooth  with  two  inner  cusps.  [Helictis]— 
HELICTIDIN.E. 

C.  Auditory  bulla  inflated,  undivided,   with  the  anterior  inferior  ex- 
tremity pointed  and  commonly  united  to  the  prolonged  hamular  pro- 
cess of  the  pterygoid.    Palate  moderately  emarginated. 

1.  Last  molar  of  upper  jaw  transverse;  with  the  inner  ledge  com- 
pressed. [Zorilla] — ZORILLI:SLE. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  85 

D.  Auditory  bulla  little  inflated,  transversely  constricted  behin  d  the 
meatus  auditorius  externus  and  thence  inwards;  in  front  flattened 
forwards;  periotic  region  expanded  outwards  and  backwards.  Palate 
deeply  emarginated. 

1.    Last  molar  of  upper  jaw  quadrangular,  wide,  but  with  an  extended 
outer  incisorial  ledge.    [Skunks]—  MEPHITIN.E. 

II.  Skull  with  the  cerebral  portion  swollen  backwards  and  outwards, 
and  with  the  rostral  portion  abbreviated,  high  and  truncated  for- 
wards, and  widened  and  depressed  above;  anteorbital  foramen  en- 
larged and  produced  downwards  and  backwards.  Feet  with  well- 
developed  interdigital  membrane,  and  adapted  for  swimming. 

A.  Teeth  normal,  36  (m  £,  p  m  |,  c  ±,  i  f  x  2):  sectorial  tooth  (p  m  M 
normal  efficient,  with  an  expanded  inner  ledge;  the  other  molars 
submustline.  Posterior  feet  with  normally  long  digits.  [Otters]  — 


B.  Teeth  very  aberrant,  32  (m  £,  p  m  |,  c  |.  i  |—  the  lower  inner  incisors 
being  lost—  x  2);  sectorial  tooth  (p  m  f  )  def  unctionalized  as  such, 
compressed  from  before  backwards;  the  other  molars  also  with 
blunted  cusps.  Posterior  feet  with  elongated  digits.  [Sea  Otters]— 
ENHYDRIN^E. 

Recognizing  the  taxonomic  value  of  these  sub-families  as 
diagnosed  by  Dr.  Gill,  we  may  yet  admit  that  for  practical 
purposes  the  more  artificial  and  older  arrangement  has  many 
practical  advantages.  According  to  this,  the  sub-divisions  of 
the  family  are  three,  founded  upon  the  structure  of  the  foot: 
a,  plantigrade  species—  the  badgers;  b,  digitigrade  species—- 
the weasels;  c,  oar-footed  species  —  the  otters. 

Among  the  badgers  we  may  mention,  aside  from  our  own 
familiar  Taxidea,  described  beyond,  the  European  badger,  Meles 
taxus,  which  inhabits  the  whole  temperate  region  of  the  Asiato 
-European  continent  as  far  as  Japan.  In  form  and  habits  it 
resembles  its  American  relative  while  the  East  Indian  badger 
has  a  longer  tail  and  is  different  in  color,  forming  the  genus 
Arctonyx.  Mydaus  telagon  is  an  animal  which  seems  rather  to 
connect  the  badgers  with  the  skunks,  both  in  appearance  and 
in  habits.  It  is  smaller  than  the  badger  and  has  a  white  dorsal 
stripe.  It  also  discharges  a  foetid  fluid  from  the  anal  glands 
when  attacked.  Africa  possesses  several  representatives  of 
the  group  which  likewise  are  intermediate  between  the 
badgers  and  skunks.  The  honey  badgers  (Mellivora)  have 
well  developed  anal  glands  and  the  peaceful  disposition  which 
characterizes  the  skunks,  but  in  form  resemble  the  badger. 
For  a  further  discussion  of  the  relations  of  the  two  groups, 
see  the  chapter  on  the  Mephitidae. 


86  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


SUB-FAMILY  MELIK  M. 

THE   BADGERS. 

We  have  already  given  the  diagnosis  of  the  sub-family  with 
sufficient  detail  for  our  present  purpose  and  may  pass  to  an  ac- 
count of  the  only  species  of  the  American  genus  Taxidea. 

GENUS  TAXIDEA,  WATERHOUSE. 

Dentition  -|.  {-.  £.  £=34.  Skull  expanded  behind,  the  inter- 
mastoid  diameter  nearly  equaling  the  inter-zygomatic.  Audi- 
tory bullae  very  much  inflated,  impinging  behind  upon  the 
paroccipitals.  Palatals  extending  half  way  to  the  ends  of  the 
pterygoids.  Coronoid  process  of  jaw  erect,  pointed.  Anterior 
molar  below  rather  small,  posterior  lower  molar  bi-tuberculate. 
Back  upper  molar  forming  a  right-angled  triangle,  with  the 
hypothenuse  directed  backward  and  outward.  Limbs  short, 
fossorial.  Body  depressed.  Tail  short,  flat.  Pelage  long 
flaccid  covering  the  back  like  a  thatch. 

Taxidea  americana  BAIRD. 

PLATE  III. 
BADGER. 

One  specimen  only  of  the  badger  has  been  seen  during  the 
survey  and  from  its  comparative  rarity  no  additional  informa- 
tion has  been  gathered.  I  am  therefore  forced  to  draw  wholly 
from  Coues'  N.  A.  Mustelidae,  a  work  so  generally  accessible 
as  to  render  synonomy  and  exhaustive  descriptive  matter  un- 
necessary. The  species  is  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  west  of  Wisconsin,  extending  farther  east  in  British 
America.  In  Mexico  a  sub-species  T.  berlandieri  takes  its  place. 
'  'The  badger  varies  greatly  in  color,  as  a  fortuitous  matter  of 
age,  season,  or  condition  of  pelage,  aside  from  certain  geogra- 
phical differences.  The  variation,  however,  is  mainly  in  the 
relative  amounts  of  the  blackish  tawny-gray  and  white  which 
produce  the  general  grizzle,  the  pattern  of  coloration  being  well 
preserved,  especially  as  to  the  markings  of  the  head.  The  top 
of  the  head  is  dark  brown  or  blackish,  generally  increasing  in 
.ntensity  and  purity  from  the  nape  to  the  snout.  This  dark 
area  is  divided  lengthwise  by  a  sharp  white  or  whitish  median 
stripe,  which  runs  from  the  snout,  or  just  back  of  it,  to  the 
nape,  where  it  is  generally  lost  in  the  grizzle  of  that  part.  The 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  87 

sides  of  the  extreme  muzzle  are  dark,  like  the  top  of  the  head; 
from  about  opposite  the  canines  the  sides  of  the  head  and  ears 
are  white,  continuous  with  the  white  of  the  chin  and  throat, 
but  interrupted  by  a  large  dusky  patch  in  front  of  the  ear.  The 
whole  body  and  tail  above  are  an  intimately  blended  mixture 
of  blackish  with  white,  hoary  gray,  and  tawny.  Owing  to  the 
length  and  coarseness  of  the  pelage,  the  museum  specimens 
present  a  patchy  or  streaky  appearance.  The  feet  are  dark 
brown  or  blackish;  the  claws  are  generally  light  colored,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  fore  feet." 

The  badger  is  preeminently  fossorial  and  extremely  shy, 
being  almost  as  difficult  to  observe  above  ground  as  the  pouch- 
ed gophers.  The  true  home  of  the  animal  is  the  prairie  region 
of  the  upper  Missouri,  where  its  holes  are  said  to  honey- 
comb the  earth. 

The  badger  is  the  determined  enemy  of  the  spermophiles 
and  field  mice  and  feeds  on  all  animal  matter  afforded.  It  pos- 
sesses itself  almost  perfect  immunity  from  all  enemies  but  man. 
In  spite  of  its  retiring  habit  the  badger  is  no  coward,  as  the 
old  amusement  of  badger  baiting  testifies.  Endurance  and 
great  strength  are  combined  with  marvelous  vitality.  The 
habits  during  the  breeding  season  are  unknown,  there  being 
three  or  four  young  at  a  birth.  Badgers  may  be  trapped  by 
placing  a  fox  trap  at  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  or  by  flooding 
in  early  spring. 

The  animal  is,  like  its  European  relative,  fond  of  honey 
which  it  is  adept  in  securing.  The  European  species  breeds  in 
October,  when  the  sexes  are  associated  in  the  same  burrow,  but 
at  other  times  they  live  the  life  of  hermits.  The  young,  three 
to  five  in  number,  are  born  in  March  and  are  carefully  cared 
for  by  the  mother.  In  northern  regions  the  animal  hibernates, 
but  further  south  adapts  itself  to  the  warmer  climate. 


BUB-FAMILY  MEPHITIN^E. 

THE  SKUNKS. 

This  is  a  comparatively  small  group  confined  to  America, 
where  it  is  represented  by  two  genera,  one  of  which  only  is 
North  American  while  the  other  is  nearly  confined  to  the  south- 
ern division  of  the  new  world.  Although  seemingly  so  well 
entitled  to  an  exclusive  position  by  the  peculiarity  through 
which  they  are  notorious,  the  skunks  are  in  many  respects 


88  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

nearly  related  with  the  badgers.  This  does  not  appear  con- 
spicuously upon  a  comparison  of  the  only  American  species  of 
that  group  with  Mephitis,  but  is  clear  upon  examination  of  cer- 
tain intermediate  genera  of  the  old  world.  Such  an  example  is 
afforded  by  the  Telagon  (Mydaus  telagori)  of  Java,  etc.  This 
animal,  although  of  a  brown  color,  has  the  peculiar  white 
marking  upon  the  back  characteristic  of  the  skunks.  The  tail 
is,  however,  even  shorter  than  in  the  badger's,  and  is  white 
tipped.  The  resemblance  to  the  skunks  is  farther  enhanced 
by  the  fact  that  they  discharge  at  pleasure  a  stream  of  the  of- 
fensive fluid  secreted  by  the  anal  glands.  This  fluid,  to  judge 
from  the  accounts  of  observers,  must  be  about  as  subtile  and 
powerfully  pungent  as  that  of  the  well  known  native  animal. 
Curiously  enough  the  next  nearest  relatives  of  the  skunk  are 
found  in  Africa  and  India,  in  the  honey  badgers  (Eatelus). 
Two  species  are  known,  one  of  which  is  native  to  south  and 
central  Africa  (E.  capensis),  the  other  occurs  in  East  India. 
(The  occurrence  of  members  of  the  same  genus  in  so  far  dis- 
tant and  isolated  stations,  may  be  incidentally  noticed  as  con- 
firmatory evidence  of  the  previous  more  intimate  connection  of 
the  two  continents,  and  the  consequent  submergence  of  large 
land  areas  in  what  is  now  the  Indian  ocean.)  In  Eatelus  the 
outward  appearance  (figure  7,  No.  7)  is  badger-like  even  to  the 
mantle  like  covering  of  long  hair  on  the  back.  The  tail  is  per- 
haps more  bushy  than  in  the  badger,  while  the  powerful  odor 
constitutes  a  remarkable  reminder  of  the  skunks  proper.  The 
habits  of  the  entire  group,  including  all  the  above  mentioned 
types,  seem  to  be  in  close  conformity,  save  in  so  far  as  the  pos- 
session of  the  effective  defensive  weapon  in  certain  of  the  ge- 
nera renders  the  animals  careless  and  even  adventurous  while 
the  others  are  among  the  most  reclusive  of  Carnivora.  Of  the 
anatomy  of  the  exotic  species  above  mentioned,  little  is  known 
to  substantiate  the  suggestions  made  upon  the  basis  of  exter- 
nal resemblances  and  physiological  similarities.  The  dentition 
of  1,  the  Zorillinae,  also  African,  is  said  to  be  closely  allied 
to  Mephitis.  Mydaus,  however,  accords  with  that  of  the  true 
skunks,  while  the  honey  badgers  have  but  32  teeth,  a  reduc- 
tion of  one  molar  above. 

Of  the  two  genera  of  the  Mephitinas  proper  Conepatus,  as 
represented  by  a  single  very  variable  species  widely  distrib- 
uted in  South  America,  (if  indeed  several  species  are  not  con- 
founded under  one  name)  bears  the  greatest  resemblance  to  the 
badgers.  Dr.  Coues  says  (N.  A.  Mustelidae  p.  188):  "The 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA.  89 

skunks  and  badgers  agree  in  many  points  of  external  conform- 
ation; in  fact  Conepatus  mapurito,  one  of  the  skunks  is  almost 
as  much  of  a  badger,  to  all  outward  appearance." 

As  regards  the  one  peculiarity  of  this  sub-family  without 
which  a  skunk  would  be  no  skunk,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
quote  again  from  Dr.  Coues  (1.  c.  p.  191):  "In  contemplating 
this  singular  provision  of  nature  for  the  protection  of  an  other- 
wise inoffensive  and  almost  defenseless  creature,  we  can  but 
admire  the  simplicity  of  the  means  employed.  Some  little 
further  development  of  glands  common  to  the  Mustelidce  and 
some  inscrutable  modification  of  the  operations  in  the  secretory 
follicles,  which  gives  a  peculiar  character  to  the  fluid  elabor- 
ated, results  in  means  of  self-preservation  as  singular  as  it  is 
efficacious,  habitual  reliance  upon  which  changes  the  economy 
of  the  animal  and  impresses  its  whole  nature."  For  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  glands  see  beyond. 

The  account  given  by  Chatin  in  the  Annalesdes  Sciences  Natur- 
elles,  1874,  furnishes  us  with  the  following  facts  regarding  the 
anatomy  of  these  parts  in  the  South  American  genus  Conepatus: 

The  glandular  part,  beginning  33  mm.  from  the  prostrate  gland,  is 
nearly  trapezoidal  and  lies  beneath  the  urethra.  It  is  enveloped  in  a 
thick  muscular  tunic  constituted  chiefly  by  fibres  from  the  ischio-caver- 
nous  and  bulbo-cavernous  muscles  and  about  3  mm.  thick.  Within  these 
muscular  layers  is  the  glandular  portion  proper  occupying  but  a  limited 
part  of  the  surface  of  the  reservoir.  The  caeca  of  the  follicles,  0.55  mm  in 
diameter,  are  of  various  shapes.  The  reservoir  itself  is  very  large  and 
covered  by  a  thick  tunic  of  dense,  white,  laminated  tissue  and  elastic 
fibres.  Toward  the  anterior  part  of  the  cavity  is  the  inner  opening  of  the 
duct.  The  ducts  open  outwardly  in  two  papillae  situated  on  either  side 
the  anus,  about  9  mm.  from  the  median  line.  These  papillae  together 
with  the  anus  itself,  are  hidden  by  flaps  of  skin  covering  the  entire  de- 
pression in  which  both  are  found. 

The  account  of  Dr.  J.  S.  Parker  of  the  anatomy  of  the  anal 
glands  of  Mephitis  being  the  only  one  which  touches  upon  the 
physical  characters  of  the  secretion  itself,  we  transcribe  a  por- 
tion of  the  article.  American  Naturalist,  1871,  p.  246. 

"I  examined  the  cavity  of  the  pelvic  bones,  without  any  peculiar  result, 
and  at  last  detached  all  except  the  hard,  muscular  pouches  and  the  common 
fundamental  aperture.  These  I  carefully  cut  loose,  and  thus  reduced 
the  formidable  animal  to  the  last  and  least  parts  possible,  and  they 
seemed  totally  inadequate  to  explain  the  well-known  effect  which  this 
animal  produces.  I  next  boldly  severed,  longitudinally,  the  rectum  and 
anus;  nothing  was  to  be  seen  worthy  of  remark,  except  two  teat-like  pro- 
jections in  two  volcanic  or  crater-like  cavities  that  seemed  suggestive  of 
what  might  happen.  So  I  cut  away  all  the  remaining  superfluous  parts 

-6 


90  BULLETIN   NO     VII. 

and  at  last  had  the  anal  lips,  two  muscular  pouches  and  the  small  glands 
connected  with  them.  My  fortitude  here  giving  out,  and  it  growing 
dark,  I  adjourned  the  matter  to  the  next  day. 

When  I  resumed  operations,  on  the  parts  now  weighing  only  about  two 
ounces  out  of  a  Mephitis  of  nine  pounds,  I  had  a  strip  of  skin  with  the 
anal  lips,  the  suspicious  calices  or  cones  in  their  cup-like  cavities  and  the 
pouches.  *  *  *  I  began  by  severing  the  two  muscular  pouches  and 
found  no  connection  between  them.  Books  say  'the  animal  gives  its 
peculiar  and  penetrating  odor  from  two  glands  situated  external  to  pel  vis.' 
I  found  the  'glands'  to  be  clear  muscular  fibre,  with  not  a  particle  of 
smell,  or  a  trace  of  any  glandular  structure.  Further  to  test  the  matter,  I 
cut  slowly  to  the  middle  of  the  mass  of  muscular,  not  glandular,  fibres 
and  came  upon  a  thick,  white  leathery  capsule  like  the  crop  of  a  chicken, 
with  the  source  for  the  contents  provided  by  the  little  glands  about  it. 
Now,  putting  on  old  clothes  and  sitting  to  the  windward,  I  cut  through 
this  white  capsule;  a  bright  yellow  fluid  came  out  and  I  instantly  felt  that 
'distance  would  lend  enchantment  to  the  view.'  But  I  was  not  to  be 
baffled.  So  I  dipped  the  point  of  my  scalpel  in  the  yellow  fluid,  put  the 
tenth  or  twentieth  part  of  a  drop  on  a  glass  and  covered  it  with  another 
strip  of  glass,  and  placed  it  under  a  power  of  forty  diameters  in  my 
microscope.  The  appearance  was  peculiar.  It  looked  like  moulten  gold, 
or  like  quicksilver  of  the  finest  golden  color.  Pressure  on  the  strips  of 
glass  made  it  flow  like  globules  of  melted  gold. 

By  a  power  of  sixty  diameters  the  same  color  still  appeared,  but  seemed 
as  if  it  would  by  a  higher  power  resolve  itself  into  globules,  with  peculiar 
markings.  -*  *  *  TO  the  eye,  the  peculiar  and  odoriferous  secretion  of 
this  animal  is  of  a  pale  bright  glistening  yellow,  with  specks  floating  in 
it.  By  the  microscope  it  looks  like  a  clear  fluid,  as  water  with  masses  of 
gold  in  it,  and  the  specks  like  bubbles  of  air  covered  with  gold,  or  rather 
air  in  golden  sacs.  The  air  I  take  to  be  the  gas  nascent  from  the  golden 
fluid.  *  *  *  Another  thing  was  a  matter  of  interest.  If  I  correctly 
made  out  the  capsule  of  fluid,  the  commonly  called  'glands'  are  the  mus- 
cular tunic  enveloping  and  capable  of  compressing  the  reservoir,  and  their 
sole  use  is  to  eject  the  liquid.  The  teat  like  projections  have  one  large 
orifice  fora  distant  jet  of  the  substance,  and  also  a  strainer,  with  num- 
erous holes— like  the  holes  in  the  cones  of  the  human  kidney— for  a  near 
but  diffusive  jetting  of  the  matter.  The  substance  is  secreted  by  small 
dark  glands,  of  small  callibre,  connected  with  the  capsule  by  narrow 
ducts." 

The  technical  peculiarities  characteristic  of  the  skunks  are 
here  collated. 

Skull.  Dental  formula:  i.|:|,c.}:J,pm.  i:|,(|;|),m.i:l--H(li)*-34(32); 
The  variation  indicated  in  the  premolar  formula  occurs  in 
the  genus  Conepatus,  where  the  number  is  usually  (but, 
according  to  Coues,  not  always  as  once  supposed)  f  :|.  A 
comparison  of  the  inferior  aspect  of  the  skull  of  Mephitis  with 
that  of  Putorius  shows  that  there  is  no  anterior  extension  of 
the  orbital  space  and  consequent  elongation  of  the  zygomatic 
arch.  The  encroachment  on  the  palatal  part  of  the  maxillary 


MAMMALS   OP  MINNESOTA.  91 

thus  brought  about  in  the  weasel  causes  the  great  reduction  of 
the  last  molar  and  the  apparent  revolution  of  the  axis  through 
90  degrees,  so  that  it  stands  at  right  angles  to  the  remainder  of 
the  series.  It  is  this  condition  of  the  orbits  and  zygoma  and 
the  abbreviation  of  the  facial  region  which  finds  its  extreme  in 
the  weasels  which  produces,  in  part  at  least,  the  great  exten- 
sion of  the  palate  in  that  group  ;  and  the  converse  condition 
in  Mephitis  produces  the  effect  of  a  deep  emargination  of  the 
palate  extending  frequently  as  far  as  the  molars.  In  most  of 
the  other  Mustelidce  the  palatal  bridge  extends  more  than  half 
way  to  the  pterygoids. 

The  form  of  the  teeth,  as  well  as  their  position,  differs  from 
that  of  the  types  of  the  family.  The  upper  incisors  are  chisel- 
shaped  and  bent  backward  near  the  end,  while  those  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  straight  and  squarely  truncate  apically,  opposing 
the  surface  thus  formed  to  the  oblique  edge  of  the  upper  teeth. 
The  lower  premolars  are  small  and  conical,  while  the  third 
upper  one  is  the  sectorial.  It  has,  however,  a  very  considerable 
development  of  the  salient  anterior  lobe  found  even  in  Putorius 
but  so  highly  developed  in  the  badgers  that  the  tooth  is  as 
much  a  grinder  as  a  sectorial.  The  upper  molar  is  quadrate, 
but  wider  than  long.  The  lower  jaw  as  a  whole  differs  very 
little  from  that  of  the  Mustelince.  The  foramina  incisiva  are 
narrow.  The  posterior  nares  are  separated  by  a  bony  septum 
almost  to  the  posterior  edge  of  the  palate.  The  pterygoids 
are  hooked  and  of  moderate  size.  The  zygomatic  arch  is  not 
compressed  laterally,  nor  as  strongly  curved  upward  as  in 
the  Mustelince.  The  glenoid  fossa  is  of  considerable  size  and  is 
well  arched  behind,  yet  looks  more  downward  than  in  the 
weasels,  although  never  locked.  The  auditory  bulla  lies  close 
to  the  post-glenoid  prominence,  and  the  meatus  opens  just 
posterior  to  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  temporal,  in  contrast  to 
that  of  the  Mustelince.  The  bullae  are  very  little  inflated,  in  this 
respect  differing  greatly  from  the  badgers.  The  mastoid  pro- 
cesses are  produced  and  directed  forward. 

Generic  characters  of  Mephitis. 

Teeth,  34  ;  formulas  :  i.  f  :|.  c,  }:i,  pm.  |:|,  m.  fcf  Frontal  region 
tumid,  dorsal  outline  of  skull  irregular.  Palate  not  extending 
beyond  the  molar  series.  Condyle  of  mandible  projecting  later- 
ally, coronoid  process  with  both  margins  convex,  angle  slightly 
flaring  outward.  Soles  quite  narrow.  Tail  very  long  and 
bushy.  Color  black  with  white  dorsal  markings. 

It  is  now  accepted  that  there  are  but  two  valid  species  of 


92  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Mephitis.  The  first  is  the  widely  distributed  and  variable 
M.  mephitica,  the  second  a  smaller  form  made  by  Coues  the 
type  of  a  distinct  subgenus  (Spilogale)  with  the  following 
additional  characters:  "Skull  depressed,  the  dorsal  outline 
approaching  straightness,  particularly  over  the  orbits.  Zygo- 
mata strongly  arched  upward,  highest  in  the  middle.  Post- 
orbital  processes  well  developed.  Mastoid  processes  slight, 
scarcely  produced  beyond  orifice  of  meatus.  Periotic  region 
peculiarly  inflated  by  development  of  mastoid  sinuses,  the 
under  surface  swollen,  and  giving  a  quasi  appearance  of  a 
second  bulla  auditoria  behind  the  real  one."  The  characters 
of  subgenus  Mephitis  of  Coues  are  the  converse  of  these. 

From  the  Mustelince,  as  represented  by  Putorius,  Mephitis  is 
sharply  distinguished  by  the  following  additional  osteological 
characters :  The  bones  of  the  limbs  are  short,  heavy  and  straight 
The  scapula  is  quadrangular,  not  triangular,  and  the  metacro- 
mium  less  developed.  There  are  but  two  vertebrae  in  the  sacrum. 
The  pelvis  is  broad  triangular  behind  with  produced  ischiatic 
spines.  The  sternebrae  are  short.  (These  are  probably  family 
characters,  but  lack  of  material  makes  it  safer  to  introduce 
them  here.)  For  a  few  other  points  in  the  osteology  see 
under  M.  mephitica. 

Mephitis  mephitica. 

THE  COMMON  SKUNK. 

Bibliography. 

Vivei-ra  mephitica  SHAW.    Mus.  Lever.,  1792;  Gen.  Zool.,  1800. 
Mephitis  mephitica  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.  1857. 

COOPER  and  SUCKLEY.    N.  H.  W.  T.,  1860. 

HAYDEN.    Trans.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc.,  xii,  1862. 

SAMUELS.    Ninth  Ann.  Rep.  Mass.  Agric.,  1861,  1862. 

GERRARD*    Cat.  Bones  Brit.  Mus.,  1862. 

ALLEN.  Bull.  M.  C.Z.,  1 869,1 87 l;Proc.  Bost.Soc.,N.  H.,  xiii, 
1869;  Bull.  Essex  Inst.,vi,  1874;  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.,  xvii,  1874. 

GILPIN.    Proc.  and  Trans.  N.  Scotia  Inst.,  1870. 
(?)  STEVENS.    U.  S.  Geogr.  Surv.  Terr.,  1870-1871. 

PARKER.    American  Naturalist,  1871. 

AMES.    Bull.  Minn.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  1874. 

COTJES.    Bull.  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geogr.  Surv.  Terr.,  1875. 

COUES  and  YARROW.     Zooi.  Expl.  W.  lOOMerid.,  1875. 
Mephitis  chinga  TIEDMANN.    Zool.,  1808. 

LICHTENSTEIN.     Darstellung   Saugeth.,  1827-34;  Abhandl. 
Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1836-1838. 

MAXIMILLIAN.    Reise  N.  A,   i,  1839;    Archiv.   f.   Naturge- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA  93 

schicte,  1861;  Verz.  N.  A.  Saug.,  1862. 

WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreb.  Saug.  ii,  1841. 

SCHINZ.    Syn.  i,  1844. 

AuDUBONand  BACHMAN.    Quadrupeds  N.  A.,  i,  1849. 

GIEBEL.    Saugethiere,  1855. 

FITZINGER.    Naturg.  Saugethiere,  1861. 

Mephitis  americana  DESMAREST.    Mammals,  1820;  Nouv.  Diet.  xxi. 
(?)  J.  SAB.    Append.  Franklin's  Journal,  1823. 

HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825. 
(?)  GRIFF.    An.  Kingd.  v,  1827. 
(?)  LESS.    Man.,  1827. 

GODMAN.    Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  i,  1831. 

DOUGHTY'S  Cab.  Nat.  Hist,  ii,  1832. 

RICHARDSON.    Zool.,  Beechey's  Voyage,  1839. 

EMMONS.    Rep.  Quad.  Mass.,  1840. 

DE  KAY.    New  York  Zoology,  i,  1842. 

WYMAN.    Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  N.  H.,  1844. 

WARREN.    Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  N.  H.,  iii,  1849. 

THOMPSON.    Nat.  Hist.  Vermont,  1853. 

WOODHOUSE.    Sitgr.  Rep.,  1853. 

KENNICOTT.    Trans.  Illinois  Agric.  Soc.,  1853-1854. 

BEESLEY.    Geol.  Cape  May,  1857. 

BILLINGS.    Canad.  Nat.  and  Geol.,  i,  1857. 

HALL.    Canad.  Nat.  Geol.,  vi,  1867. 

Mephitis  americana  var.  hudsonica  RICHARDSON.  Fauna  Bor.  Amer.,  i,  1829. 
Chincha  americana  LESSONS.    Nouv.  Tabl.,  du  regne  an.  mammifers,  1842. 
Mephitis  chinche  FISCHER.    Syn.,  1829. 
Mephitis  varians  var.  chinga  GRAY.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1865. 
Chinche  SHAW.    Mus.  Lever.,  1792;  ST.  HILAIRE  and  CUVIER,  Hist.  Nat. 

Mammifers,  1819. 

Mephitic  Weasel  SHAW.    Mus  Lever. 
Quinsque  SAGARD-THEODAT.    Histoire  du  Canada. 
Enfan  du  Diable  Charlevoix,  N.  France,  v,  1744. 
Polecat  KALM.  Voy. 
Skunk  FORSTER.    Ace.  of  Quad.  Hud.  Bay  and  in 

PENNANT.    Arct.  Zool.,  i,  1784. 

HEARNE.    Journ. 

Chinga  SCHING.    Synop.  Mam.,  1844. 
Monfette  d'Amerique  AUCT. 
Fiskatta  (Swedish),  Betepuante  (French),  Stinkthier  (German)  var.  "meso- 

melas." 
Mephitis  mesomelas  LICHTENSTEIN.    Darstellung  Saug.,  1827-34,  Abhand- 

lung  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1836. 

MAXIMILLIAN.    Reise,    1839;   Arch.    Naturg.,  xxvii,  1861; 

Verzeichniss,  N.  A.  Saug.,  1862. 

SCHINZ.    Synopsis  Mammal.,  1844-5. 

ST.  HILAIRE.    Zool.  Voy.  Venus,  i,  1855. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 

Mephitis  mesomtles  GERRARD.    Cat.  Bones,  Brit.  Mus.,  1862. 
Mephitis  occidentalis  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 

NEWBERRY.    Pacific  R.  R.  Rep.,vi,  1857. 

COOPER  and  SUCKLEY.    Nat.  Hist.  W.  T.,  1860. 


94  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Mephitis mephitica,  var.  occidentalis  MERRIAM.    U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Terr.,  1872. 
Mephitis  varians,  var.  a,  GRAY.    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1865. 
Mephitis  varians  GRAY.    Mag.   Nat.  Hist.,  i;  List  Mammals  Brit.  Mus., 
1843;  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1865;  Cat.  Carniv.  Brit.  Mus.,  1869. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857;  Mexican  Boundary  Surv.,  ii,  1859. 

GERRARD.    Cat.  Bones  Brit.  Mus.,  1862. 
Mephitis  macroura  ATJDUBON  AND  BACHMAN.    Q.  N.  A.,  iii,  1853. 

WOODHOUSE.    Sitgreaves' Rep.,  1853. 


Descriptive  and  Biographical: 

In  this  case,  as  well  as  generally  where  species  of  the  Mus- 
telidce  are  concerned,  our  account  can  be  little  more  than  an 
abridgement  of  the  excellent  and  exhaustive  treatment  found 
in  Coues'  Fur-bearing  Animals,  in  which  all  the  prior  accounts 
are  accompanied  by  the  results  of  the  author's  studies  of  all 
the  material  collected  by  the  various  officers  of  the  national 
scientific  departments. 

As  Minnesota  is  credited  with  but  one  (quite  sufficient)  rep- 
resentative of  the  sub-family  Mephitince,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  statements  under  that  head  for  the  more  general  facts 
relating  to  this  animal. 

This  well  known  animal  may  be  described  as  the  incense- 
bearer  of  the  sylvan  deities,  and  yet  the  odor  of  sanctity 
which  clings  to  the  sable  and  ermine  of  its  vestures  suggests 
that  those  deities  belong  in  the  theogony  of  Pluto.  The  ton- 
sure is  represented  by  a  band  of  white  extending  to  the  fore- 
head, and  the  phylacteries  are  of  snowy  whiteness  and  are  folded 
back  to  decorate  the  shoulders.  The  train  is  usually  white  and 
of  plumy  delicacy.  In  consonance  with  his  priestly  robes  the 
demeanor  is  sedate  and  devoid  of  any  impetuousness.  What- 
ever unpleasantness  may  occur  he  never  betrays  alarm  or  incer- 
titude, but  pursues  his  way  with  the  same  quiet  and  unostenta- 
tious dignity.  Seriously,  but  for  the  unpleasant  nature  of  the 
secretion  of  the  anal  glands  (which  secretion,  however,  is  char 
acteristic  of  mink,  weasels  and  the  Mustelidce  in  general,  as 
well  as  many  rodents),  the  skunk  would  be  an  interesting  and 
even  a  useful  animal,  forming  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  the  gar- 
dener if  not  to  the  poultryman.  Relying  upon  his  unsavory 
reputation,  this  animal  is  far  less  wary  than  most  small  mam- 
mals, and  being  but  partially  nocturnal,  may  often  be  seen, 
where  abundant,  in  daytime  ambling  quietly  along  in  search  of 
insects,  worms,  small  mammals,  such  as  mice,  etc. ,  which  form 
the  staple  articles  of  his  diet.  The  appearance  of  man  ordinarily 
causes  him  to  scarcely  accelerate  his  pace  or  turn  from  his 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  95 

course.  Every  country  boy  has  had  his  more  or  less  mem- 
orable encounter  with  the  animal  in  question.  A  sort  of  legen- 
dary terror  adds  imagined  danger  to  such  escapades,  for  in 
reality  one  has  but  to  behave  as  composedly  as  the  Mephitis 
certainly  will,  to  escape  discomfiture.  If  it  be  really  necessary 
to  remove  such  a  neighbor,  it  is  easy  to  take  him  in  a  trap  set 
at  the  mouth  of  the  burrow,  though  it  then  becomes  a  question 
how  to  dispose  of  the  prize.  A  well  directed  charge  of  shot  is 
perhaps  the  surest  way  to  avoid  unpleasant  consequences. 
When  taken  in  a  trap,  however,  a  skillful  person  can  safely 
administer  a  quietus  with  a  staff,  by  striking,  upon  the  head, 
especially  if  the  foot  is  placed  upon  the  tail.  A  properly  con- 
structed' "deadfall"  is  a  convenient  way  of  at  once  trapping 
and  killing  the  animal.  If,  for  any  reason,  firearms  are  un- 
available, the  animal  when  trapped  may  be  disposed  of  as  sug- 
gested by  C.  L.  Whitman  in  The  Forest  and  Stream,  1876. 

"My  favorite  method  of  dealing  with  them  is  as  follows: 
With  a  tough  annealed  No.  15  or  16  iron  wire  I  form  a  slip-, 
noose  about  five  inches  in  diameter  and  a  standing  loop  of  two 
inches  on  the  other,  and  a  space  of  five  inches  between.  The 
loop  is  attached  to  the  smaller  end  of  a  light,  stiff  pole  of  eight 
or  ten  feet  in  length.  With  this  firmly  grasped  in  both  hands, 
I  slowly  and  carefully  approach,  and  slip  the  noose  over  his 
head,  and  with  a  quick  jerk  backwards  and  upwards,  lift  him 
as  high  as  the  chain  of  the  trap  will  allow,  and  thus  hold  him 
until  he  is  strangled.  ...  If  the  jerk  upward  has  not  been 
adroitly  made,  the  wire  may  not  draw  as  tight  as  it  ought ;  in 
which  case  a  discharge  of  the  pungent  odor  will  usually  f ollows 
but  in  this  perpendicular  position  the  discharge  descends 
directly  downwards,  so  that  if  the  attack  has  been  made  from 
the  windward,  as  it  ought,  there  is  no  danger.  The  approach 
is  sometimes  resented  at  first,  but  the  gradual  arching  of  the 
tail  gives  timely  warning,  and  a  careful  retreat  is  necessary 
for  a  moment.  The  second  or  third  attempt  is  successful.  The 
animal  by  that  time  recovers  from  the  alarm,  and  at  most  will 
merely  sniff  the  air  in  your  direction.  With  this  device  I  have 
destroyed  many  hundred  during  the  past  thirty  years,  and  do 
not  recollect  an  instance  where  I  bore  any  of  the  odor  about 
me,  except  I  had  inadvertently  trod  upon  dirt  that  was  defiled." 

We  pass  to  description  of  the  external  appearance  and  color- 
ation. The  coloration  is  the  point  which  first  attracts  atten- 
tion, and  is  sufficiently  characteristic  that  there  need  never  be 
any  hesitation  in  referring  the  animal  to  this  genus.  The 


96  BULLETIN   NO.    Til. 

coarse,  flaccid  pelage  is  chiefly  deep  lustreless  black  relieved 
with  areas  of  the  most  plumy  white.  Although  Dr.  Coues  is 
inclined  to  doubt  even  the  varietal  value  of  the  distinction  made 
by  previous  authors,  it  seems  certain  that  in  given  localities 
the  pattern  of  coloration  is  quite  constant.  Strictly  speaking, 
all  the  skunks  which  we  have  collected  belong  to  the  Mephites 
mesomelas  of  Lichenstein.  In  this  variety,  the  coloration  of 
which,  as  Dr.  Coues  admits,  is  normal  in  the  west,  there  is  a 
cuneiform  or  elongated  and  distinct  white  frontal  spot  and  a 
broad  conspicuous  nuchal  patch  separated  from  the  former  by 
a  very  black  band  between  the  ears.  A  distinct  black  stripe, 
beginning  back  of  the  shoulders,  separates  the  rather  broad 
lateral  bands  of  white  which  converge  to  a  union  anterior  to  the 
root  of  the  tail,  which  is  entirely  white,  dor  sally  and  apically, 
with,  however,  a  broad  black  band  underneath.  The  same 
pattern  is  seen  in  two-thirds  grown  young  of  the  year  as  in  the 
parent  female,  but  there  is  a  preponderance  of  white  in  the 
former.  The  soles  are  not  hairy  in  summer,  but  doubtless 
become  so  in  winter.  The  elevating  of  that  point  to  a  chief 
specific  character,  as  is  done  by  Baird  in  the  Mammals  of  N.  A., 
seems  amusing. 

Comparing  the  coloration  of  our  animal  with  that  of  other 
varieties,  we  find  in  the  eastern  United  States  the  white  areas 
are  greatly  restricted.  However,  great  variations  occur.  The 
frontal  stripe  may  nearly  disappear,  or  may  merge  with  the 
muchal  area  ;  the  lateral  lines  may  be  distinct,  or  may  extend 
part  way  upon  the  tail  or  unite  anteriorly.  The  tail  may  be 
nearly  or  quite  black,  but  more  frequently  marked  with  white, 
especially  terminally.  Even  when  apparently  black  the  base 
of  many  of  the  hairs  is  white.  The  white  elongated  hairs  of 
the  tail  are  of  a  different  texture  from  the  remainder  of  the 
pelage.  Indeed  the  tail  entirely  lacks  the  under  fur  found 
elsewhere.  Toward  the  south  the  amount  of  white  is  reduced 
along  with  the  size  of  the  animal. 

Next  to  the  color  the  elongated  and  very  bushy  tail  is  the 
most  conspicuous  external  character  separating  Mephitis  from 
its  allies.  In  some  cases,  as  in  that  represented  in  plate  102  of 
Audubon,  the  long  hairs  spread  in  all  directions  when  elevated, 
so  that  the  member  has  been  aptly  likened  to  the  plumes  of  a 
pompon. 

The  short  legs  and  plantigrade  walk  give  a  peculiar  mincing 
character  to  the  gait.  The  nose  is  elongated,  and  forms  the 
acute  apex  of  the  conical  head.  The  eye  is  small  and  oblique. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  97 

The  ear  is  low  and  nearly  hidden  in  the  fur.  The  back  part  of 
the  animal  is  very  large  comparatively,  as  though  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  tail.  The  toes  are  very  short,  especially  on  the 
anterior  extremities.  The  claws  in  front  are  rather  large. 

Although  the  skunk  is  so  confident  in  nature's  provision  for 
its  defense,  its  reliance  is  at  times  misplaced,  for  it  sometimes 
falls  a  victim  to  its  temerity.  The  fox,  particularly,  manages 
to  destroy  and  make  a  meal  of  it.  Owls  and  large  hawks  also 
sometimes  feed  upon  them.  The  skunk  hibernates  partially  in 
northern  latitudes,  but  it  is  said  wakens  periodically  to  empty 
its  reservoirs. 

Dr.  Merriam,  whose  extended  experience  with  the  animal  in 
question  makes  him  excellent  authority  upon  it,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing interesting  particulars  concerning  the  skunk  in  domes 
tication  :* 

* '  Skunks,  particularly  when  young,  make  very  pretty  pets, 
being  attractive  in  appearance,  gentle  in  disposition,  interest- 
ing in  manners,  and  cleanly  in  habits — rare  qualities  indeed  ! 
They  are  playful,  sometimes  mischievous,  and  manifest  consid- 
erable affection  for  those  who  have  care  of  them.  I  have  had, 
at  different  times,  ten  skunks  in  confinement.  They  were  all 
quite  young,  measuring  from  100  to  150  mm.  (approximately  4 
to  7  in.)  only  in  length,  when  first  taken.  Some  were  dug  out 
of  their  holes,  and  the  rest  caught  in  box  traps.  Two  were  so 
young  that  they  could  walk  but  a  few  steps  at  a  time,  and  had 
to  be  brought  up  on  milk,  being  fed  with  a  spoon.  The  others 
ate  meat  and  insects  from  the  start.  From  some  of  them  I  re- 
moved the  scent  bags,  but  the  greater  number  were  left  in  a 
state  of  nature.  None  ever  emitted  any  odor,  although  a 
couple  of  them,  when  half  grown,  used  to  assume  a  painfully 
suggestive  attitude  on  the  too  near  approach  of  strangers — so 
suggestive,  indeed,  that  their  visitors  commonly  beat  a  hasty 
retreat.  These  same  skunks,  when  I  came  within  reach,  would 
climb  up  my  legs  and  get  into  my  arms.  They  liked  to  be 
caressed,  and  never  offered  to  bite.  Others  that  I  have  had 
did  not  show  the  aversion  to  strangers  evinced  by  this  pair,  and 
I  believe  the  difference  to  be  due  to  the  way  in  which  they  are 
brought  up.  If  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  a  number  of 
people  they  are  familiar  and  friendly  toward  all;  while  if  kept 
where  they  habitually  see  but  one  or  two  persons  they  will  not 
permit  a  stranger  to  touch  them. 

*Mammals  of  the  Adirondack  Region,  p.  73. 


98  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Two  summers  ago  I  was  the  happy  master  of  the  cleverest 
young  skunk  that  I  have  thus  far  chanced  to  meet.  For  a 
name  he  received  the  title  of  his  genus,  and  we  called  him 
*  Meph. '  for  short.  By  way  of  precaution,  I  removed  his  scent 
sacs,  and  he  made  a  rapid  and  complete  recovery,  after  a  few 
days  of  temporary  indisposition.  While  driving  about  the 
country,  in  the  performance  of  professional  duties,  he  usually 
slept  in  my  pocket.  After  supper  I  commonly  took  a  walk,  and 
he  always  followed  close  at  my  heels.  If  I  chanced  to  walk  too 
fast  for  him,  he  would  scold  and  stamp  with  his  fore-feet,  and 
if j  I  persisted  in  keeping  too  far  ahead,  would  turn  about  dis- 
gusted, and  make  off  in  an  opposite  direction,  but  if  I  stopped 
and  called  him,  he  would  hurry  along  at  a  sort  of  ambling 
pace,  and  soon  overtake  me.  He  was  particularly  fond  of 
ladies,  and  I  think  it  was  the  dress  that  attracted  him  ;  but  be 
that  as  it  may,  he  would  invariably  leave  me  to  follow  any  lady 
that  chanced  to  come  near.  We  used  to  walk  through  the 
woods  to  a  large  meadow  that  abounded  in  grasshoppers. 
Here  'Meph.'  would  fairly  revel  in  his  favorite  food,  and  it  was, 
rich  sport  to  watch  his  manoeuvres.  When  a  grasshopper 
jumped  he  jumped,  and  I  have  seen  him  with  as  many  as  three 
in  his  mouth  and  two  under  his  fore-paws  at  one  time  !  He 
would  eat  so  many  that  his  over  -  extended  belly  actually 
dragged  upon  the.  ground,  and,  when  so  full  that  he  could  hold 
no  more,  would  still  catch  and  slay  them.  When  so  small  that 
he  could  hardly  toddle  about  he  never  hesitated  to  tackle  the 
large  and  powerful  beetle  known  as  the  horned  bug,  and  got 
many  smart  nips  for  his  audacity.  But  he  was  a  courageous 
little  fellow  and  it  was  not  long  before  he  learned  to  handle 
them  with  impunity.  Ere  many  weeks  he  ventured  to  attack  a 
mouse,  and  the  ferocity  displayed  in  its  destruction  was  truly 
astonishing.  He  devoured  the  entire  body  of  his  victim,  and 
growled  and  stamped  his  feet  if  any  one  came  near  before  the 
repast  was  over." 

P.  421  Carver's  Travels  : 

4 '  THE  SKUNK.  This  is  the  most  extraordinary  animal  that 
the  American  woods  produce.  It  lives  chiefly  in  the  woods 
and  hedges.  But  its  extraordinary  powers  are  only  shewn 
when  it  is  pursued.  As  soon  as  he  finds  himself  in  danger  he 
ejects  to  a  great  distance  a  small  stream  of  water  of  so  subtile 
a  nature,  and  at  the  same  time  of  so  powerful  a  smell,  that  the 
air  is  tainted  with  it  for  half  a  mile  in  circumference.  On  this 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  99 

account  he  is  called  by  the  French,  Enfant  du  Diable,  the  Child 
of  the  devil,  or  Bete  Puante,  the  Stinking  Beast.  This  water 
is  supposed  by  naturalists  to  be  its  urine,  but  I  have  dissected 
many  of  them  that  I  have  shot,  and  have  found  within  their 
bellies,  near  the  urinal  vessels,  a  small  receptacle  of  water 
totally  distinct  from  the  bladder.  After  having  taken  out  with 
great  care  the  bag  wherein  this  water  is  lodged,  I  have  fre- 
quently fed  on  them,  and  have  found  them  very  sweet  and 
good." 

GENUS  GULO,     STORR.     (Wolverenes.)* 

(Fig.  6  [3].) 

This  genus  contains  but  a  single  species  of  very  wide  range 
in  both  hemispheres.  The  largest  North  American  represent- 
ative of  the  weasel  family  (Mustelidoe).  Form  clumsy,  some- 
what bear-like,  pelage  shaggy,  gait  partly  plantigrade.  The 
tail  is  bushy  and  rather  short.  The  claws  are  curved  and 
large.  The  skull  is  particularly  massive,  and  its  spinous 
development  is  great.  The  dentition  is  as  in  the  martens 
(Mustela)  |:}:f:i=38.  The  anterior  molar  below  is  the  sectorial 
but  lacks  the  internal  cusp.  Mastoids  and  bullse  prominent. 

There  are  seven  cervical  vertibraB,  fifteen  dorsal,  five  lumbar, 
three  sacral,  and  about  fifteen  caudals. 

There  are  well  developed  anal  glands  affording  an  offensive 
odor.  Circumpolar.  Name  from  Latin  gulo,  a  glutton,  in 
allusion  to  the  voracity  of  the  animal. 

Gulo  borealis  NILSSON. 

THE  WOLVERENE. 

Mustela  gulo  LINNAEUS,  GUNN,  HOUTTON,  etc. 

Ursus  gulo  SCHREBBR,  Sseugethiere,  1778;  ZIMMERMANN,  Geog.  Gesch., 
1780;  GMELIN,  SHAW,  CUVIER,  etc. 

Meles  gulo  PALLAS,  Spic.  Zool.,  1780. 

Taxus  gulo  TIEDEMANN,  Zool.,  1808. 

Gulo  borealis  NILSSON,  Ilium.  B^ig.  till  Skan.  Fn.;  RETZ.,  CUVIER,  WAG- 
NER, KEYSOR  and  BLASIUS,  SCHINZ,  BLASIUS,  BRANDT, 
GRAY,  VOGT,  etc. 

Gulo  sibiricus  PALLAS. 

Gulo  arcticus  DESMAREST,  LESSON,  FISCHER,  GIEBEL,  FITZINGBR,  etc. 

Gulo  vulgans  GRIFFITH,  SMITH,  etc. 

Ursus  luscus  LINN^US,  Systema  Naturae ;  ERXLEBEN,  SCHREBER,  ZiM- 
MERMANN,  GMELTN,  SHAW,  TlJRTON. 

*  Our  account  is  chiefly  a  compilation  from  the  exhaustive  article  of  Dr.  Ooues  in 
the  Monograph  of  North  American  Mustelidae. 


100  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

•Gulo  luscus  SABINE,  Franklin's  Journal,  1823 ;  RICHAKDSON,  FISCHER, 
GODMAN,  Ross,  SMITH,  DEKAY,  GRAY,  AUD.  and  BACH., 
THOMPSON,  BAIRD,  BILLINGS,  MAXIMILLIAN,  GERRARD, 
COUES,  DALL,  ALLEN,  MERRIMAN  ;  most  recent  American 
authors. 

'Gulo  wolverine  GRIFFITH.    Animal  Kingdom,  1827. 

The  wolverene  is  a  stout  heavy  animal  about  two  feet  and 
one- half  long,  exclusive  of  the  bushy  tail,  which  measures 
about  one  foot.  The  form  resembles  both  that  of  a  bear  cub 
and  of  a  hyena.  To  the  former  the  resemblance  is  borne  out 
by  the  nearly  plantigrade  walk,  while  the  sloping  back  and 
shagginess  might  suggest  the  latter,  as  do  its  habits.  The 
palms  and  soles  are  densely  covered  with  fur,  except  the  small 
pads.  The  color  is  dark  brownish  black,  darkest  on  the  back. 
The  sides  are  lighter,  the  color  being  greyish  or  yellowish. 
At  the  top  of  the  head  and  in  front  of  the  ears  is  a  grey  or 
whitish  area,  and  there  are  also  light  spots  on  the  throat  as 
in  the  martens. 

Dr.  Coues  has  favored  us  with  a  full  historical  account  of  the 
animal,  from  which  the  following  quotations  are  made:  "The 
written  history  of  the  Glutton  or  Wolverene,  dates  from  an 
early  period  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  animal  is  men- 
tioned by  several  writers  in  much  the  same  extravagant  terms. 
The  first  appearance  of  the  animal  in  literature  is  said  by  Von 
Martens  to  have  been  in  1532,  at  the  hands  of  Mechow,  a  phys- 
ician of  Cracow,  in  the  work  De  Sarmatia  Asiana  et  Europcea. 
*  *  *  Endorsed  for  two  centuries  by  various  writers,  each 
more  or  less  authoritative  in  his  own  times,  and,  moreover, 
appealing  strongly  to  the  love  of  the  marvellous,  the  current 
fables  took  strong  root  and  grew  apace,  flourishing  like  all 

'ill  weeds,'  and  choking  sober  accounts the  general  picture 

impressed  upon  the  susceptible  mind  of  that  period  being  that 
of  a  ravenous  monster  of  insatiate  voracity,  matchless  strength 
and  supernatural  cunning,  a  terror  to  all  other  beasts,  the 

blood-thirsty  master  of  the  forest. We  read  how  the 

Glutton,  too  clumsy  and  tardy  of  foot  to  overtake  large  rumi- 
nants, betakes  itself  to  the  trees  beneath  which  they  may  pass, 
and  there  crouches  in  wait  for  its  victim  ;  it  drops  like  a  bolt 
upon  the  unsuspecting  elk,  moose,  reindeer,  and  fastening  with 
claws  and  teeth,  sucks  the  blood,  and  destroys  them  as  they 
run.  That  nothing  may  be  left  undone  to  ensure  success,  the 
animal  has  the  wit  to  throw  down  moss  or  lichens  to  attract  its 
prey,  and  to  employ  the  friendly  services  of  foxes  to  drive  the 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  101 

quarry  beneath  the  fatal  spot. We  may  remember  also 

that  the  history  of  the  Wolverene  is  mixed,  in  some  cases,  with 
that  of  other  animals,  some  of  whose  habits  have  been  attribu- 
ted to  it.  Thus  Charlevoix  speaks  of  the  ' Carcajou  or  Quinca- 
jou,  a  kind  of  cat,'  evidently,  however,  having  the  Cougar 
(Felis  concolor)  in  view,  as  appears  from  the  rest  of  his  remarks." 
The  name  "Carcajou"  appears  in  Carver's  Travels  (p.  420),  and 
as  the  animal  purports  to  be  found  in  Minnesota,  it  may  be  in- 
teresting to  quote  the  paragraph  in  full : 

"  THE  CARCAJOU. — This  creature,  which  is  of  the  cat  kind,, 
is  a  terrible  enemy  to  the  preceding  four  species  of  beasts. 
He  either  comes  upon  them  from  some  concealment  unper- 
ceived,  or  climbs  up  into  a  tree,  and  taking  his  station  in  some 
of  the  branches,  waits  till  one  of  them,  driven  by  an  extreme 
of  heat  or  cold,  takes  shelter  under  it,  when  he  fastens  upon 
his  neck,  and  opening  the  jugular  vein,  soon  brings  his  prey  to 
the  ground.  This  he  is  enabled  to  do  by  his  long  tail,  with 
which  he  encircles  the  body  of  his  adversary ;  and  the  only 
means  they  have  to  shun  their  fate,  is  by  flying  immediately  to- 
the  water.  By  this  method,  as  the  Carcajou  has  a  great  dislike 
to  that  element,  he  is  sometimes  got  rid  of  before  he  can  effect 
his  purpose." 

In  this  case  the  reference  can  only  be  to  the  puma,  though 
partly  fabulous.  The  single  species  of  Gulo  is  circumpolar, 
and  abounds  to  far  north,  Its  southern  limit  is  about  40°  in 
suitable  locations,  although  only  a  few  instances  are  known  of 
its  occurrence  so  far  south.  In  Minnesota  I  have  no  informa- 
tion of  the  animal,  although  it  must  have  once  existed  here. 
In  Europe  this  animal  once  ranged  (as  proven  by  quarternary 
remains)  as  far  south  as  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  but  is  now  re- 
stricted to  the  polar  regions.  In  Asia  the  range  is  considerably 
greater.  The  wolverene  is  not  strictly  nocturnal,  but,  where 
abundant,  may  be  encountered  at  any  time  of  day  or  night,  and 
in  all  seasons.  He  preys  on  small  animals,  and  will  even 
attack  young  caribou  and  deer.  But  the  taste  is  not  discrimi- 
nating, everything  being  eaten  which  chance  may  throw  in  the 
way;  even  carrion  is  not  rejected  in  case  of  need.  The  great 
stories  told  of  his  voracity  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  history  of 
the  animal,  but  he  seems  to  be  particularly  characterized  by 
marvelous  cunning  and  endurance.  The  marten  trapper  often 
finds  a  skillful  and  inveterate  energy  in  this  large  member  of 
the  marten  family.  A  line  of  traps  is  visited  as  assiduously  by 
the  glutton  as  by  the  owner,  and  with  disastrous  results,  for 


102  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

the  traps  are  destroyed  and  hidden,  and  the  bait  devoured  or 
cached.  According  to  northern  explorers  the  animal  is  a  victim 
of  a  senseless  kleptomania,  not  contenting  itself  in  confiscating 
everything  it  can  devour,  but  stealing  and  secreting  all  articles 
it  is  able  to  carry.  It  may  be  itself  trapped  in  a  dead-fall"or 
steel- trap  of  large  size,  but  great  skill  is  required  to  outwit  the 
animal. 

The  wolverene  brings  forth  four  or  five  young,  in  secluded 
caverns  or  hollow  logs,  in  June  or  July,  and  the  female  is  said 
to  be  very  fierce  and  even  dangerous  while  guarding  the  young. 
The  sense  of  smell  is  the  best  developed  of  the  senses,  the 
vision  being  particularly  unreliable  ;  which  may  give  rise  to 
the  habit  with  which  it  is  credited,  of  shading  its  eyes  with  its 
paw  when  looking  at  a  distance. 

GENUS  MUSTELA,  LINN. 

This  genus,  including  the  martens,  differs  in  many  respects 
from  the  glutton,  and  connects  that  animal  with  the  slender 
weasels.  The  dental  formulas  are  identical,  I  :}:f  :i==38,  and  dif- 
fer from  that  of  Putoris  in  having  one  more  premolar  above 
and  below.  The  skull  is  much  less  massive  and  more  tapering 
than  in  Gulo.  The  rostral  portion  is  elongated.  The  frontal 
profile  is  concave.  There  are  seven  cervical  vertebrae,  sixteen 
dorsals,  six  lumbar,  three  sacral,  and  eighteen  to  twenty  cau- 
dal. The  form  is  stout  and  somewhat  cat-like  or  fox-like;  size 
moderate— that  of  a  cat;  progression  digitigrade;  fur  dense  and 
valuable;  habit  arboreal  and  terrestrial.  Although  many  vari- 
eties are  known  to  furriers,  zoologically  but  four,  or  at  most 
five,  species  can  be  recognized.  The  true  sable  is  M.  zibellina, 
closely  allied  to  which  is  M.  martes,  the  common  European  spe- 
cies. The  house  marten,  M.  foina,  is  of  a  greyer  color,  and 
has  a  longer  tail  than  the  above.  Our  own  M.  americana,  or 
marten,  closely  resembles  the  M.  martes,  while  the  fisher  is 
widely  different.  The  following  table  of  differentia  may  prove 
useful. 

M.pennanti  (Fischer).    Length  2  feet  or  more,  tail  over  1  foot,  tapering; 

ears  wide,  semi-circular  ;  color  blackish,  darkest  below  ;  no 

light  throat-patch. 
M.  americana.    Length  under  2  feet;  tail  less  than  1  foot,  uniformly 

bushy  ;  ears  high,  triangular  ;  color  brownish,  darker  above, 

usually  with  a  lighter  patch  on  the  throat. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  103 

Mustela  pennant!  ERXL. 

PEKAN  OR  FISHER. 

Mustela  canadensis  SCHBEBER,  etc. 

Maries  canadensis  GRAY. 

Viverra  canadensis  SHAW. 

Viverra  piscator  SHAW. 

Mustela  melanorhyncfia  BODDAERT,  etc. 

Mustela  nigra  TURT. 

Mustela  godmani  FISCHER. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  fisher  is  much  like  that  of  the  fox, 
hence  it  is  often  popularly  called  "black  fox."  A  full  grown 
animal  measures  about  46  inches,  the  tail  being  16  inches  long. 
It  is  thus  much  larger  than  our  other  Mustelidce,  and  is  rela- 
tively much  stouter  and  more  compactly  framed.  The  head  is 
six  inches  long,  the  eye  being  two  inches  from  the  end  of  the 
muzzle.  The  ear  is  twice  as  broad  as  long,  and  is  one  inch  high. 
The  feet  are  broad  and  flat,  furred  on  both  sides,  and  armed 
with  curved,  compressed  claws.  The  hind  foot  is  4-5  inches 
long.  The  tail  is  bushy  and  conical,  and  the  fur  is  coarser 
tfian  in  the  martens.  The  color  is  exceedingly  variable,  con- 
sisting of  black  and  dark  brown  below,  and  greyish  brown  or 
reddish  above.  The  belly,  legs  and  tail  are  often  black,  though 
the  breast  is  sometimes  white  spotted. 

The  name  fisher  is  quite  inappropriate,  as  the  animal  is  not 
aquatic,  but  is  said  to  have  a  feline  repugnance  to  that  element. 
Neither  does  it  feed  on  fish,  but  pursues  squirrels  and  other 
small  quadrupeds. 

Richardson  says:  "  The  Pekan  is  a  larger  and  stronger  ani- 
mal than  any  variety  of  the  Pine  Marten,  but  has  similar  man- 
ners, climbing  trees  with  facility,  and  preying  principally 
upon  mice.  It  lives  in  the  woods,  preferring  damp  places  in 
the  vicinity  of  water,  in  which  respects  it  differs  from  the  Mar- 
ten, which  is  generally  found  in  the  dryest  spots  of  pine  forests. 
The  fisher  is  said  to  prey  on  frogs  in  the  summer  season,  but  I 
have  been  informed  that  its  favorite  food  is  the  Canada  porcu- 
pine, which  it  kills  by  biting  on  the  belly.  It  brings  forth  once 
a  year,  from  two  to  four  young. " 

The  pekan  is  distributed  from  ocean  to  ocean,  in  wooded 
regions  north  of  35°,  but  its  southern  limit  has  been  greatly 
altered  by  the  inroads  of  the  trapper.  It  is  still  reasonably 
abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of  our  state. 

This  animal  is  stated  to  attack  and  destroy  so  large  and 
powerful  a  creature  as  the  raccoon .  Sir  John  Richardson 


104  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

states  that  "its  favorite  food  is  the  Canada  porcupine,  which 
it  kills  by  biting  in  the  belly."  Other  writers  have  questioned 
the  truth  of  this  statement,  but  it  has  recently  received  addi- 
tional verification.  Mr.  Merriam  writes:  "During  a  recent 
visit  to  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  I  was  in- 
formed, both  by  an  agent  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  and  by 
the  trappers  themselves,  that  porcupines  constitute  a  large 
and  important  element  in  the  food  supply  of  the  Pekan.  Mr. 
Nap.  A.  Corneau,  of  Godbout,  who  secured  for  me  a  large  and 
handsome  male  of  this  species,  tells  me  that  its  intestine  con- 
tained hundreds  of  porcupine  quills,  arranged  in  clusters,  like 
so  many  packages  of  needles,  throughout  its  length.  In  no 
case  had  a  single  quill  penetrated  the  mucous  lining  of  the  in- 
testine, but  they  were  apparently  passing  along  its  interior  as 
smoothly  and  surely  as  if  within  a  tube  of  glass  or  metal.  Mr. 
Corneau  did  not  discover  a  quill  in  any  of  the  abdominal  vis- 
cera, or  anywhere  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  excepting  as  above 
stated;  a  great  many,  however,  were  found  imbedded  in  the 
muscles  of  the  head,  chest,  back  and  legs,  and  it  was  remark- 
able that  their  presence  gave  rise  to  no  irritation,  no  products 
of  inflammation  being  found  in  their  vicinity.  In  examining 
the  partially  cleaned  skeleton  of  this  specimen,  I  find  some  of 
the  quills  in  the  deep  muscles  and  ligaments  about  the  joints. 
A  knee,  in  particular,  shows  several  in  its  immediate  neighbor 
hood." 

The  nest  is  made  in  a  hollow  tree,  generally  thirty  or  forty 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  two  to  four  young  are  brought  forth 
about  the  first  of  May. 

"  They  are  agile  and  muscular  animals,  jumping  from  tree  to 
tree  like  a  squirrel,  clearing  a  distance  of  forty  feet  in  a 
descending  leap,  never  failing  of  a  secure  grip." — Corporal 
Lot  Warfield,  quoted  by  Merriam. 

Mustela  americana  TURTON. 

AMERICAN  SABLE  OR  MARTEN. 

Mustela  martes  FORSTER,  SABINE,  HARLAN,  EMMONS,  AUD.  and  BACHMAN, 

BILLINGS,  KENNICOTT,  etc. 
Mustela  americana  TURTON,  BAIRD,  COUES,  etc. 
Martes  americana  GRAY. 
Mustela  zibellina  var.  americana  BRANDT. 
Mustela  vulpina  RAFINESQUE. 
Mustela  leucopus  KUHL. 
Mustela  huro  F.  OUVIER. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  105 

The  body  of  the  Marten  is  equal  to  that  of  a  small  cat,  the 
entire  length  being  about  30  inches,  the  tail  measuring  12. 
The  legs  are  short  and  strong.  The  tail  is  bushy  and  full 
toward  the  end,  in  contrast  to  the  pekan.  The  head  is  broadly 
triangular  and  cat-like,  the  eyes  being  oblique  and  situated  half 
way  from  snout  to  ears,  which  latter  are  high  and  rather  pointed. 
The  soles  are  furred,  and  the  pelage  throughout  is  dense,  soft, 
and  full.  The  color  is  brown  of  various  shades,  ranging  from 
almost  orange  to  nearly  black,  the  latter  being  most  valuable. 
On  the  throat  there  is  a  patch  of  yellowish  or  tawny,  while  the 
whole  under  surface  is  lighter  than  the  upper.  The  fur  is  full 
from  the  end  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  May.  Toward  the 
end  of  summer,  after  the  moult,  a  fine  short  fur  appears  re- 
sembling that  of  a  mink  ;  it  gradually  lengthens  as  winter  ap- 
proaches, and  is  considered  prime  after  the  first  snow  fall. 

The  American  animal  agrees  with  the  European  M.  martes  so 
closely  in  external  appearance  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  dis- 
cover distinctive  features,  but  the  osteological  features  are  said 
to  be  well  marked.  It  is  probably  otherwise  with  M.  zebellina, 
the  true  sable,  which  cannot  at  present  be  distinguished.  The 
four  species  are  certainly  very  closely  allied,  and  show  the 
martens  to  be  of  recent  origin. 

In  the  Bui  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey, 
vol.  II,  No.  4,  Mr.  J.  A.  Allen  summarizes  a  large  number  of 
facts  illustrating  the  geographical  variation  in  this  species,  yet 
concludes  that  the  three  species,  foina,  americana  and  martes, 
are  sufficiently  distinct. 

The  rocky,  woody  district  on  the  north  shore  of  lake  Superior 
and  the  national  boundary  is  noted  for  its  valuable  black  mar- 
tens. The  northern  limit  coincides  with  that  of  the  forests. 

' '  Sable  are  ordinarily  captured  in  wooden  traps  of  very 
simple  construction,  made  on  the  spot.  The  traps  are  a  little 
enclosure  of  stakes  and  brush  in  which  the  bait  is  placed  upon 
a  trigger,  with  a  short  upright  stick  supporting  a  log  of  wood  ; 
the  animal  is  shut  off  from  the  bait  in  any  but  the  desired  direc- 
tion, and  the  log  falls  upon  the  victim  with  the  slightest 
disturbance.  A  line  of  such  traps,  several  to  the  mile,  often 
extends  many  miles.  The  bait  is  any  kind  of  meat,  a  mouse, 
squirrel,  piece  of  fish,  or  bird's  head.  One  of  the  greatest 
obstacles  that  the  sable  hunter  has  to  contend  with,  in  many 
localities,  is  the  persistent  destruction  of  his  traps  by  the 
wolverine  and  pekan,  both  of  which  display  great  cunning 

0> 


106  BULLETIN   NO.    VII 

and  perseverance  in  following  up  his  line  to  eat  the  bait,  and 
even  the  sables  themselves  may  be  captured.  I  have  accounts 
from  Hudson's  Bay  trappers  of  a  sable  road  fifty  miles  long, 
containing  150  traps,  every  one  of  which  was  destroyed  through- 
out the  whole  line  twice — once  by  a  wolf,  and  once  by  a  wolverine. 
The  marten  is  exceedingly  shy,  and  never  ventures  into  human 
enclosures;  nevertheless,  when  captured,  it  makes  a  rather 
amiable  pet  and  has  little  of  the  offensive  odor  of  the  family." 

GENUS  PUTORIUS. 

Dental  formula:  i,  I;  c,  1;  pm.  |;  m,  |x2=34.  Sectorial  of  lower 
jaw  without  an  internal  cusp.  Skull  flat,  rostral  portion  short 
and  turgid.  Zygomatic  arch  usually  not  higher  behind  than  in 
front.  Periotic  region,  bullae,  etc  ,  little  inflated. 

The  body  is  usually  very  slender  and  lithe,  the  head  short 
and  fierce,  with  orbicular  ears.  The  legs  are  short  and  stout, 
the  tail  uniformly  terete.  The  genus  is  divided  into  four 
sections  :  Gale  (ermines  and  weasles),  Cynomyonax  (American 
ferret),  Putorius  (ferrets),  and  Luireota  (minks).  The  Amer- 
ican ferret  is  confined  to  the  central  plateau.  The  ferrets 
proper  are  stout-bodied  forms  confined  to  the  Old  World,  thus 
leaving  two  of  the  groups  to  be  considered. 

The  weasels  proper  are  grouped  under  Gale,  and  have  the 
following  characters:  The  skull  is  smooth,  with  no  sagittal 
crest.  Frontal  profile  strongly  convex  and  declivous.  Ptery- 
goids  with  small  hamular  processes,  or  none.  Bullae  auditorise 
nicked  at  end  by  orifice  of  meatus.  Skull  moderately  abruptly 
constricted  near  the  middle  ;  post  orbital  processes  slight. 
Small  animals  of  slender,  serpentine  form,  of  terrestrial  habit. 
Most  northern  species  become  white  in  winter.  We  have  in 
Minnesota  two  species. 

Putorius  vulgaris  ALDROV. 
LESSER   WEASEL. 

(FIG.  8B.-OOMMON  ERMINE  WEASEL.) 

Mustela  vulgaris,  Earlier  authors  generally. 

Fcetorius  vulgaris  KEYSOR  and  BLASIUS. 

Mustela  gale  PALLAS. 

Mustela  nivalis  FORSTER. 

Mustela  pusilla  DEKAY. 

Putorius  pusillus  AUDUBON. 

Putorius  cicognani  RICHARDSON. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


107 


This  species  is  circumpolar  and  is  equally  distributed  in  the 
New  and  Old  World.  In  general  it  does  not  approach  the  poles 
as  nearly  as  the  ermine,  but  extends  rather  farther  south. 
This  species  seems  to  have  been  domesticated  as  a  mouser  in 
Greece  prior  to  the  introduction  of  cats. 

This  species  differs  from  the  ermine  in  its  smaller  size.  The 
length  varies,  eight  inches  being  the  maximum  length  of  body, 
the  tail  about  two  and  a  half.  The  tail  is  almost  always  with- 
out the  black  terminal  portion  so  characteristic  of  the  larger 
species.  The  northern  specimens  turn  white  in  winter,  but  in 
southern  Minnesota  probably  not.  But  a  single  specimen  was  % 
collected  during  the  survey,  and  the  notes  upon  this  are  in- 
complete. 


B. 


Fig.  8.    A.  Putorius  ermtnea  (Ermine  or  White  Weasel). 
B.  Putorius  vulgaris  (common  Weasel). 

Although  only  relatively  rare  it  is  far  from  well  known.  Its 
food  is  mice,  insects,  eggs  and  young  birds.  It  is  said  to  climb 
readily  in  search  of  nests.  When  a  mouse  is  introduced  into 
the  cage  containing  a  weasel,  says  Bell:  ''It  instantly  issued 
from  its  box,  and  in  a  moment,  one  single  bite  on  the  head 
pierced  the  brain,  and  laid  the  mouse  dead  without  a  struggle 


108  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

or  a  cry.  I  have  observed  that  when  a  weazel  seizes  a 
small  animal,  at  the  instant  when  the  fatal  bite  is  inflicted,  it 
throws  its  long,  lithe  body  over  its  prey,  so  as  to  secure  it, 
should  the  first  bite  fail.  The  power  which  the  weasel  has  of 
bending  the  head  at  right  angles  with  the  long  and  flexible 
neck  gives  it  a  great  advantage."  In  pursuing  a  rat  or  mouse, 
it  depends  upon  the  sense  of  smell,  and  follows  them  with 
equal  ease  when  out  of  sight,  readily  recovering  the  lost  track. 
It  is  said  that  it  even  takes  to  the  water  in  pursuit  of  its  prey. 
Although  the  weasel  may  itself  fall  a  victim  to  birds  of  prey, 
instances  are  known  when  the  unequal  contest"  has  been  carried 
on  in  the  air,  and  the  sharp  tooth  of  the  weasel  has  brought  to 
the  ground  its  winged  captor.  Four  or  five  young  are  produced, 
there  being  two  litters  annually.  A  hollow  tree  or  hole  in 
a  bank,  well  lined  with  leaves,  forms  the  nest.  The  mother 
defends  her  young  to  the  last  extremity. 

Putorius  erminea  LINN. 

ERMINE,   OR  WHITE  WEASEL 
(PLATE  XV,  FiaS.  1-15.    See  ante.) 

Mustela  erminea,  Earlier  authors. 

Putorius  noviboracensis  DeKAY,  etc.  (var.  cicognani.) 

Mustela  cicognani  BONAPARTE. 

Putorius  cicognani  BAIRD,  etc. 

Putorius  richardsoni  RICHARDSON,  BAIRD. 

Mustela  fusca  AUD. 

Putorius  agilis  AUD. 

Putorius  kanei  BAIRD. 

We  accept  unhesitatingly  the  identification  of  our  species 
with  that  of  Europe,  and  incline  to  regard  the  P.  longicaudata 
as  in  the  same  category.  This  whole  question  has  been  so 
thoroughly  discussed  by  Coues  and  Allen  that  it  need  not  be 
reopened. 

Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  cylindrical  serpentine  form, 
the  flattened  head  notably  shorter  than  the  neck.  As  Coues 
says,  *  'the  eyes  are  rather  small,  situated  midway  between  the 
nose  and  ears  ;  they  glitter  with  changing  hues,  and  contribute 
with  the  low  forhead  and  protruding  canine  teeth,  to  a  pecu- 
liarly sinister  and  ferocious  physiognomy.  In  northern  regions 
the  whole  sole  is  furred,  but  elsewhere  the  pads  appear." 

In  summer  the  upper  parts  are  a  uniform  brown,  varying 
from  very  dark  umber  to  a  yellowish  gray,  the  line  of  demark 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  109 

ation  from  the  white  of  the  lower  parts  is  quite  sharp.  Only 
the  end  of  the  tail  is  black.  The  white  of  the  under  parts 
is  suffused  with  a  sulphury  tint.  The  winter  pelage  is  white, 
unbroken  except  by  the  black  tip  of  the  tail  and  the  yellow 
suffusion.  The  change  is  a  gradual  one,  and  consists  of  a 
gradual  substitution  of  white  for  the  darker  color,  usually  by 
gradual  encroachment  from  below,  leaving  a  constantly  nar- 
rower dorsal  band.  Sometimes,  however,  the  substitution  goes 
on  over  the  entire  dorsal  region  simultaneously.  Dr.  Coues 
considers  that  the  change  is  effected  in  either  of  two  ways: 
Either  the  renewal  of  the  pelage  by  the  outgrowth  of  hairs  of  a 
different  color,  or  the  change  of  the  hairs  after  their  formation, 
cold  being  the  conditioning  circumstance  in  either  case.  We 
may  be  permitted  to  doubt  that  the  question  is  satisfactorily 
settled.  Two  important  purposes  are  subserved  by  the  change, 
the  animal  is  screened  from  observation  and  thus  protected 
from  its  foes  and  rendered  more  successful  in  the  chase,  and 
the  white  color  makes  the  pelage  a  less  perfect  conductor  of  the 
animal  heat. 

The  Latin  name  Puiorius,  refers  to  the  odor  which  is  derived 
.from  the  secretion  of  the  anal  glands,  and  is  only  less  persist- 
ent and  offensive  than  in  the  skunk. 

The  always  pleasing  pen  of  Mr.  Wm.  MacGillivray  has  fur- 
nished us  with  the  following  general  account  of  the  habits  of 
the  Stoat  as  observed  in  Great  Britain: — "It  appears  that  in 
England  generally  the  Ermine  is  less  common  than  the  Wea- 
sel; but  in  Scotland,  even  to  the  south  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  it 
is  certainly  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  that  species;  and 
for  one  Weasel  I  have  seen  at  least  five  or  six  Ermines.  It 
frequents  stony  places  and  thickets,  among  which  it  finds  a 
secure  retreat,  as  its  agility  enables  it  to  outstrip  even  a  dog 
in  a  short  race,  and  the  slimness  of  its  body  allows  it  to  enter 
a  very  small  aperture.  Patches  of  furze,  in  particular,  afford 
it  perfect  security,  and  it  sometimes  takes  possession  of  a 
rabbit's  burrow.  It  preys  on  game  and  other  birds,  from  the 
grouse  and  ptarmigan  downwards,  sometimes  attacks  poultry 
or  sucks  their  eggs,  and  is  a  determined  enemy  to  rats  and 
moles.  Young  rabbits  and  hares  frequently  become  victims  to 
its  rapacity,  and  even  full  grown  individuals  are  sometimes 
destroyed  by  it.  Although  in  general  it  does  not  appear  to 
hunt  by  scent,  yet  it  has  been  seen  to  trace  its  prey  like  a  dog, 
following  its  track  with  certainty.  Its  motions  are  elegant, 
and  its  appearance  extremely  animated.  It  moves  by  leaping 


110  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

or  bounding,  and  is  capable  of  running  with  great  speed, 
although  it  seldom  trusts  itself  beyond  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  cover.  Under  the  excitement  of  pursuit,  however,  its  cour- 
age is  surprising,  for  it  will  attack,  seize  by  the  throat  and 
cling  to  a  grouse,  hare  or  other  animal,  strong  enough  to  carry 
it  off;  and  it  does  not  hesitate  on  ocasion  to  betake  itself  to 
the  water.  Sometimes,  when  met  with  in  a  thicket  or  stony 
place,  it  will  stand  and  gaze  upon  the  intruder,  as  if  conscious 
of  security;  and,  although  its  boldness  has  been  exaggerated 
in  the  popular  stories  which  have  made  their  way  into  books 
of  natural  history,  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  in  proportion  to 
its  size,  it  is  at  least  as  courageous  as  the  tiger  or  the  lion." 

With  a  mind  preoccupied  in  contemplation  of  the  exploits  of 
the  chase  of  great  Carnivora — those  grand  exhibitions  of  pred- 
atory instincts  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  strongest  beasts, 
one  is  apt  to  overlook,  or  at  least  to  underestimate,  the  compara- 
tive prowess  of  some  lesser  animals.  Doubtless,  the  entomolo- 
gist would  give  instances  of  equal  courage  and  perseverance 
in  pursuit  of  prey,  of  vastly  greater  comparative  strength  and 
skill  in  its  capture,  and  superior  destructiveness.  Probably 
the  great  mass  of  insect-eating  animals — an  immense  and 
varied  host — are  in  no  whit  behind  in  this  respect.  And  in 
nothing  the  instincts  and  predacious  habits  of  the  Weasels  and 
Stoats,  we  observe  that,  to  grant  them  only  equal  courage  and 
equal  comparative  prowess,  we  must  nevertheless  accede  to 
them  a  wider  and  more  searching  range  of  active  operations 
against  a  greater  variety  of  objects,  more  persevering  and 
more  enduring  powers  of  chase,  and  a  higher  grade  of  pure 
destructiveness,  taking  more  life  than  is  necessary  for  immedi- 
ate wants.  The  great  cats  are  mainly  restricted  each  to  partic- 
ular sources  of  food  supply,  which  they  secure  by  particular 
modes  of  attack;  and,  their  hunger  satisfied,  they  -quietly 
await  another  call  of  nature.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  Wea- 
sels. No  animal  or  bird,  below  a  certain  maximum  of  strength, 
or  other  means  of  self-defence,  is  safe  from  their  ruthless  and 
relentless  pursuit.  The  enemy  assails  them  not  only  upon  the 
ground,  but  under  it,  and  on  trees,  and  in  the  water.  Swift 
and  sure-footed,  he  makes  open  chase  and  runs  down  his  prey; 
keen  of  scent,  he  tracks  them,  and  makes  the  fatal  spring 
upon  them  unawares;  lithe  and  of  extraordinary  slenderness 
of  body,  he  follows  the  smaller  through  the  intricacies  of  their 
hidden  abodes,  and  kills  them  in  their  homes.  And  if  he  does 
not  kill  for  the  simple  love  of  taking  life,  in  gratification  of 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA  111 

superlative  bloodthirstiness,  he  at  any  rate  kills  instinctively 
more  than  he  can  possibly  require  for  his  support.  I  know  not 
where  to  find  a  parallel  among  the  larger  Carnivora.  Yet  once 
more,  which  one  of  the  larger  animals  will  defend  itself  or  its 
young  at  such  enormous  odds?  A  glance  at  the  physiognomy 
of  the  Weasels  would  suffice  to  betray  their  character.  The 
teeth  are  almost  of  the  highest  known  raptorial  character;  the 
jaws  are  worked  by  enormous  masses  of  muscles  covering  all 
the  side  of  the  skull.  The  forehead  is  low,  and  the  nose  is 
sharp;  the  eyes  are  small,  penetrating,  cunning;  and  glitter 
with  an  angry  green  light.  There  is  something  peculiar,  more- 
over, in  the  way  that  this  fierce  face  surmounts  a  body  extraor- 
dinarily wiry,  lithe,  and  muscular.  It  ends  a  remarkably  long 
and  slender  neck  in  such  way  that  it  may  be  held  at  right 
angle  with  the  axis  of  the  latter.  When  the  creature  is  glan- 
cing around,  with  the  neck  stretched  up,  and  flat  triangular 
head  bent  forward,  swaying  from  one  side  to  the  other,  we 
catch  the  likeness  in  a  moment— it  is  the  image  of  a  serpent. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  character  of  the  Stoat,  I  con- 
tinue with  an  extract  from  Audubon,  which  represents  nearly 
all  that  has  appeared  to  the  point  in  this  country:— 

"Graceful  in  form,  rapid  in  his  movements,  and  of  untiring 
industry,  he  is  withal  a  brave  and  fearless  little  fellow;  con- 
scious of  security  within  the  windings  of  his  retreat  among  the 
logs,  or  heap  of  stones,  he  permits  us  to  approach  him  within 
a  few  feet,  then  suddenly  withdraws  his  head;  we  remain  still 
for  a  moment,  and  he  once  more  returns  to  his  post  of  observa- 
tion, watching  curiously  our  every  motion;  seeming  willing  to 
claim  association  so  long  as  we  abstain  from  becoming  his  per- 
secutor. 

"Yet  with  all  these  external  attractions,  this  little  Weasel 
is  fierce  and  bloodthirsty,  possessing  an  intuitive  propensity 
to  destroy  every  animal  and  bird  within  its  reach,  some  of 
which,  such  as  the  American  rabbit,  the  ruffed  grouse  and 
domestic  fowl,  are  ten  times  its  own  size.  It  is  a  notorious 
and  hated  depredator  of  the  poultry  house,  and  we  have 
known  forty  well-grown  fowls  to  have  been  killed  in  one 
night  by  a  single  Ermine.  Satiated  with  the  blood  of  proba- 
bly a  single  fowl,  the  rest,  like  the  flock  slaughtered  by  the 
wolf  in  the  sheepfold,  were  destroyed  in  obedience  to  a  law  of 
nature,  an  instinctive  propensity  to  kill.  We  have  traced  the 
footsteps  of  this  bloodsucking  little  animal  on  the  snow,  pur- 
suing the  trail  of  the  American  rabbit,  and  although  it  could 


112  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

not  overtake  its  prey  by  superior  speed,  yet  the  timid  hare 
soon  took  refuge  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree,  or  in  a  hole  dug  by 
the  Marmot,  or  Skunk.  Thither  it  was  pursued  by  the  Ermine 
and  destroyed,  the  skin  and  other  remains  at  the  mouth  of  the 
burrow  bearing  evidence  of  the  fact.  We  observed  an  Ermine, 
after  having  captured  a  hare  of  the  above  species,  first  behead 
it  and  then  drag  the  body  some  twenty  yards  over  the  fresh 
fallen  snow,  beneath  which  it  was  concealed,  and  the  snow 
lightly  pressed  down  over  it;  the  little  prowler  displaying 
thereby  a  habit  of  which  we  became  aware  for  the  first  time 
on  that  occasion.  To  avoid  a  do  g  that  was  in  close  pursuit,  it 
mounted  a  tree  and  laid  itself  flat  on  a  limb  about  twenty  feet 
from  the  ground,  from  which  it  was  finally  shot.  We  have 
ascertained  by  successful  experiments,  repeated  more  than  a 
hundred  times,  that  the  Ermine  can  be  employed,  in  the  man- 
ner of  the  Ferret  of  Europe,  in  driving  our  American  rabbit 
from  the  burrow  into  which  it  has  retreated.  In  one  instance 
the  Ermine  employed  had  been  captured  only  a  few  days  be- 
fore, and  its  canine  teeth  were  filed  in  order  to  prevent  its 
destroying  the  rabbit;  a  cord  was  placed  around  its  neck  to 
secure  its  return.  It  pursued  the  hare  through  all  the  wind- 
ings of  its  burrow,  and  forced  it  to  the  mouth,  where  it  could 
be  taken  in  a  net,  or  by  the  hand.  In  winter,  after  a  snow 
storm,  the  ruffed  grouse  has  a  habit  of  plunging  into  the  loose 
snow,  where  it  remains  at  times  for  one  or  two  days.  In  this 
passive  state  the  Ermine  sometimes  detects  and  destroys  it. 

"Notwithstanding  all  these  mischieveous  and  destructive 
habits,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Ermine  is  not  rather  a  bene- 
factor than  an  enemy  to  the  farmer,  ridding  his  granaries  and 
fields  of  many  depredators  on  the  products  of  his  labour,  that 
would  devour  ten  times  the  value  of  the  poultry  and  eggs 
which,  at  long  and  uncertain  intervals,  it  occasionally  destroys. 
A  mission  appears  to  have  been  assigned  it  by  Providence  to 
lessen  the  rapidly  multiplying  number  of  mice  of  various  spe- 
cies and  the  smaller  rodentia. 

"The  White-footed  Mouse  is  destructive  to  the  grains  in  the 
wheat  fields  and  in  the  stacks,  as  well  as  the  nurseries  of  fruit- 
trees.  Le  Conte's  Pine  Mouse  is  injurious  to  the  Irish  and 
sweet  potato  crops,  causing  more  to  rot  by  nibbling  holes  in 
them  than  it  consumes,  and  Wilson's  Meadow-mouse  lessens 
our  annual  product  of  hay  by  feeding  on  the  grasses,  and  by  its 
long  and  tortuous  galleries  among  their  roots. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  113 

'    /  '  '  {    • 

"Whenever  an  Ermine  has  taken  up  its  residence,  the  mice 
in  its  vicinity  for  half  a  mile  around  have  been  found  rapidly 
to  diminish  in  number.  Their  active  little  enemy  is  able  to 
force  its  thin  vermiform  body  into  the  burrows,  it  follows  them 
to  the  end  of  their  galleries,  and  destroys  whole  families.  We 
have  on  several  occasions,  after  a  light  snow,  followed  the  trail 
of  this  Weasel  through  fields  and  meadows,  and  witnessed  the 
immense  destruction  which  it  occasioned  in  a  single  night.  It 
enters  every  hole  under  stumps,  logs,  stone  heaps  and  fences, 
and  evidences  of  its  bloody  deeds  are  seen  in  the  mutilated  re- 
mains of  the  mice  scattered  on  the  snow.  The  little  Chipping 
or  Ground  Squirrel,  Tamias  Lysteri  [sc.  striatus~\  takes  up  its 
residence  in  the  vicinity  of  the  grain  fields  and  is  know  to  carry 
off  in  its  cheek  pouches  vast  quantities  of  wheat  and  buckwheat, 
to  serve  as  winter  stores  The  Ermine  instinctively  discovers 
these  snug  retreats,  and  in  the  space  of  a  few  minutes  destroys 
a  whole  family  of  these  beautiful  little  Tamice;  without  even 
resting  awhile  until  it  has  consumed  its  now  abundant  food,  its 
appetite  craving  for  more  blood,  as  if  impelled  by  an  irresistible 
destiny,  it  proceeds  in  search  of  other  objects  on  which  it  may 
glut  its  insatiable  vampire-like  thirst.  The  Norway  rat  and  the 
Common  House  Mouse  take  possession  of  our  barns,  wheat  stacks, 
and  granaries,  and  destroy  vast  quantities  of  grain.  In  some  in- 
stances the  farmer  is  reluctantly  compelled  to  pay  even  more 
than  a  tithe  in  contributions  towards  the  support  of  these  pests. 
Let  however  an  Ermine  find  its  way  into  these  barns  and  gran- 
aries, and  there  take  up  its  winter  residence,  and  the  havoc 
which  is  made  among  the  rats  and  mice  will  soon  be  observa- 
ble. The  Ermine  pursues  them  to  their  farthest  retreats,  and 
in  a  few  weeks  the  premises  are  entirely  free  from  their  depre- 
dations. We  once  placed  a  half  domesticated  Ermine  in  an  out- 
house infested-  with  rats,  shutting  up  the  holes  on  the  outside 
to  prevent  their  escape.  The  little  animal  soon  commenced  his 
work  of  destruction.  The  squeaking  of  the  rats  was  heard 
throughout  the  day.  In  the  evening,  it  came  out  licking  its 
mouth,  and  seemed  like  a  hound  after  a  long  chase,  much  fa- 
tigued .  A  board  of  the  floor  was  raised  to  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain the  result  of  our  experiment,  and  an  immense  number  of 
rats  were  observed,  which,  although  they  had  been  killed  in 
different  parts  of  the  building,  had  been  dragged  together,  form 
ing  a  compact  heap. 

'  'The  Ermine  is  then  of  immense  benefit  to  the  farmer.     We 
are  of  the  opinion  that  it  has  been  over-hated  and  too  indis 


114  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

criminately  persecuted.  If  detected  in  the  poultry  house,  there 
is  some  excuse  for  destroying  it,  as,  like  the  dog  that  has  once 
been  caught  in  the  sheepfold,  it  may  return  to  commit  further 
depredations;  but  when  it  has  taken  up  its  residence  under  stone 
heaps  and  fences,  in  his  fields,  or  his  barn,  the  farmer  would 
consult  his  interest  by  suffering  it  to  remain,  as  by  thus  invit- 
ing it  to  a  home,  it  will  probably  destroy  more  formidable  ene- 
mies, relieve  him  from  many  petty  annoyances,  and  save  him 
many  a  bushel  of  grain. " 

The  same  author,  alluding  to  the  Weasel's  want  of  shyness, 
and  its  ready  capture  in  any  kind  of  trap,  continues  with  a 
matter  that  may  next  interest  us — its  relative  abundance  in 
different  localities: — "This  species  does  not  appear  to  be  very 
abundant  anywhere.  We  have  seldom  found  more  than  two  or 
three  on  any  farm  in  the  Northern  or  Eastern  States.  We  have 
ascertained  that  the  immense  number  of  tracks  often  seen  in  the 
snow  in  particular  localities  were  made  by  a  single  animal,  as 
by  capturing  one,  no  signs  of  other  individuals  were  afterwards 
seen.  We  have  observed  it  most  abundant  in  stony  regions; 
in  Dutchess  and  Ontario  counties  in  New  York,  on  the  hills  of 
Connecticut  and  Vermont,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Alleghanies 
in  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  It  is  solitary  in  its  habits,  as 
we  have  seldom  seen  a  pair  together  except  in  the  rutting  season. 
A  family  of  young,  however,  are  apt  to  remain  in  the  same 
locality  until  autumn.  In  winter  they  separate,  and  we  are 
inclined  to  think  they  do  not  hunt  in  couples  or  in  packs 
like  the  wolf,  but  that,  like  the  bat  and  the  mink,  each  indi- 
vidual pursues  its  prey  without  copartnership,  and  hunts  for 
its  own  benefit."  In  Massachusetts,  according  to  Allen,  it  is 
comparatively  common.  I  myself  saw  none  in  Labrador  during 
my  summer  visit;  but  it  must  be  quite  abundant,  to  judge  from 
the  number  of  skins  I  saw  in  possession  of  the  natives  at  various 
places.  According  to  Richardson,  ''Ermine-skins  formed  part 
of  the  Canada  exports  in  the  time  of  Charlevoix;  but  they  have 
so  sunk  in  value,  that  they  are  said  not  to  repay  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  the  expense  of  collecting  them,  and  very  few  are 
brought  to  the  country  from  that  quarter."  Nevertheless,  it 
would  appear  that  the  Ermine  is  much  more  abundant  in  British 
America  generally  than  it  is  in  the  United  States.  Over  three- 
fourths  of  the  large  miscellaneous  collection  of  skins  we  have 
examined  in  the  preparation  of  this  article  came  from  this  coun- 
try and  from  Alaska.  The  writer  last  mentioned  speaks  of  it 
as  "common",  and  adds  that  it  often  domesticates  itself  in  the 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  115 

houses  of  the  fur  traders,  where  it  may  be  heard  the  live -long 
night  pursuing  the  white-footed  mouse.  Up  to  a  certain  limit  of 
latitude  it  would  appear  to  increase  in  numbers  to  the  north- 
ward. The  abundance  of  an  Ermine,  either  the  present  or  suc- 
ceeding species,  on  the  Missouri  is  attested  by  the  regalia  of 
ceremony  of  some  of  the  Indian  tribes — picturesque  constumes 
decorated  with  the  tails,  in  rude  imitation  of  royal  fashion. 

Like  a  majority  of  thoroughly  predacious  animals,  the  Ermine 
is  somewhat  nocturnal;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  active  and  success- 
ful in  the  dark.  Nevertheless,  it  is  too  often  abroad  in  the  day- 
time, either  in  sport  or  on  the  chase,  to  warrant  our  reckoning 
it  among  the  truly  nocturnal  Carnivores.  In  the  choice  and 
construction  of  its  retreats  we  see  little  evidence  of  burrowing 
instincts,  or,  indeed,  of  any  considerable  fossorial  capacity.  It 
retreats  beneath  stone  heaps,  under  logs  and  stumps,  in  hol- 
lows of  trees,  and  also  in  true  underground  burrows,  though 
these,  it  should  be  observed,  are  usually  those  made  by  Rodents 
or  other  burrowers  whom  it  has  driven  off  or  destroyed.  Nev- 
ertheless, there  is  evidence  that  the  animal  sometimes  digs. 
Thus  Captain  Lyon,  as  rendered  by  Richardson,  states,  that  he 
observed  a  curious  kind  of  burrow  made  by  Ermines  in  the  snow, 
"which  was  pushed  up  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tracks  of 
moles  through  the  earth  in  England.  These  passages  run  in  a 
serpentine  direction,  and  near  the  hole  or  dweling  place  the 
circles  are  multiplied,  as  if  to  render  the  approach  more  intri- 
cate." Audubon  has  a  passage  of  similar  effect: — "We  have 
frequently  observed  where  it  had  made  long  gallleries  in  the 
deep  snow  for  twenty  or  thirty  yards,  and  thus  in  going  from 
one  burrow  to  another,  instead  of  travelling  over  the  surface,  it 
had  constructed  for  itself  a  kind  of  tunnel  beneath." 

Accounts  of  different  writers  indicate  a  great  variation  in  the 
number  of  young  produced  at  a  birth — from  two  to  twelve.  We 
may  safely  assume  that  these  unusual  extremes,  the  aver- 
age litter  being  five  or  six.  As  in  case  of  the  Mink,  the  rutting 
season  is  early;  in  the  United  States,  during  a  part  of  Febru- 
ary and  March.  Young  have  been  noted,  toward  the  southern 
extreme  of  the  range  of  the  species,  before  the  end  of  March; 
but  most  are  produced  in  May  or  late  in  April.  Without  defi- 
nite information  respecting  the  period  of  gestation,  we  may  sur- 
mise this  to  be  about  six  or  seven  weeks.  Information  is  also 
wanting  of  the  length  of  time  that  the  young  nurse  or  require 
to  have  food  brought  them  by  the  parents. 


116  BULLETIN    NO.    VII. 

Of  the  mental  characteristics  of  the  ermine  much  has  been 
written.  In  spite  of  its  innocent  appearance  the  little  animal 
is  probably  the  most  bloodthirsty  and  blindly  ferocious  of  our 
Garni vora.  The  following  account,  kindly  furnished  me  by 
Dr.  T.  S.  Roberts,  illustrates  the  blind  fury  with  which  it  re- 
sents interference : 

"Going  to  a  place  on  a  small  island  in  Lake  of  the  Isles 
where  had  been  left  on  the  12th  inst. ,  the  skinned  bodies  of  six 
muskrats,  it  was  found  that  they  had  all  disappeared.  While 
standing  near  the  spot  the  white  head  of  a  weasel  appeared  at  a 
hole  under  the  roots  of  a  small  oak  tree  close  by.  It  soon  with- 
drew again,  and  a  steel  trap  was  set  at  the  entrance  to  the  bur- 
row. Presently  it  appeared  at  a  second  opening  near  by.  Here 
-a  second  trap  was  set.  The  weasel  would  come  to  the  entrance, 
look  out  and  go  back  again,  passing  and  repassing  with  great 
•agility  over  the  trap  without  springing  it.  On  walking  away 
some  distance  and  looking  back  the  weasel  was  seen  out  of  his 
retreat,  and  making  violent  efforts  to  drag  the  muskrat  into  his 
hole.  On  approaching  again  he  tore  away  at  the  body  furi- 
ously, but  was  forced  to  leave  it.  He  seemed  of  a  very  irritable 
disposition,  as  he  would  tear  and  bite  in  the  most  insane  man- 
ner at  sticks  and  roots  in  the  entrance  of  the  hole,  as  if  in 
a  great  rage.  Once  he  appeared  at  the  entrance  and  seizing  one 
of  the  jaws  of  the  trap  tried  to  drag  the  whole  down  with  him. 
At  last,  in  a  more  than  usually  precipitate  retreat  over  the 
trap  he  sprung  it,  and  was  a  prisoner.  He  was  as  fierce  as  any 
large  animal,  and  showed  great  fight." 

Dr.  Merriam  says  :  "I  once  put  a  very  large  rat  into  a  square 
tin  cage  with  a  weasel  of  this  species.  The  rat  had  been  caught 
in  a  steel  trap  by  the  toes  of  one  of  its  hind  feet,  and  was  in  no 
way  injured.  He  was  very  ugly,  biting  fiercely  at  the  trap  and 
the  stick  with  which  I  assisted  him  into  the  cage  of  the  weasel. 
No  sooner  had  he  entered  the  cage  than  his  whole  manner  and 
bearing  changed.  He  immediately  assumed  an  attitude  of 
abject  terror,  and  trembled  from  head  to  foot,  and  crawled  into 
the  nearest  corner.  The  weasel  advanced  toward  him  at  once, 
and  as  he  did  so  the  rat  raised  on  his  hind  legs,  letting  his  fore 
paws  hang  helplessly  over  his  breast,  and  squealed  piteously. 
not  only  did  he  show  no  disposition  to  fight,  but  offered  no  re- 
sistance whatever,  and  did  not  even  attempt  to  defend  himself 
when  molested.  The  weasel  did  not  seize  him  at  first,  but 
cuffed  him  with  his  fore  paws,  and  drove  him  from  one  corner 
of  the  cage  to  another,  glaring  at  him  continuously.  Then, 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  117 

with  a  sudden  move,  he  sprang  upon  his  victim,  already  par- 
alyzed with  fear,  laid  open  the  back  of  the  head  with  a  single 
bite,  ate  the  brains,  and  left  the  quivering  carcass  untouched." 

In  connection  with  the  above  vivid  picture  of  the  effect  pro- 
duced upon  its  victims  by  the  appearance  of  the  weasel,  we- 
may  quote  from  Coues  a  passage  showing  how  his  aspect 
affects  a  more  dispassionate  and  unbiassed  observer: 

"  A  glance  at  the  physiognomy  of  the  weasels  would  suffice 
to  betray  their  character.  The  teeth  are  almost  of  the  highest 
raptorial  character  ;  the  jaws  are  worked  by  enormous  masses 
of  muscles  covering  all  the  sides  of  the  skull.  The  forehead  is. 
low,  and  the  nose  is  sharp;  the  eyes  are  small,  penetrating, 
cunning,  and  glitter  with  an  angry  green  light.  There  is 
something  peculiar,  moreover,  in  the  way  that  this  fierce  head 
surmounts  a  body  extraordinarily  wiry,  lithe  and  muscular. 
It  ends  in  a  remarkably  long  and  slender  neck,  in  such  a  way 
that  it  may  be  held  at  a  right  angle  with  the  axis  of  the  latter- 
When  the  creature  is  glancing  around,  with  the  neck  stretched 
up,  and  the  fiat  triangular  head  bent  forward,  swaying  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  we  catch  the  likeness  in  a  moment — it  is 
the  image  of  a  serpent." 


(?)  Putorius  longicaudata  BON  APART. 

LONG-TAILED  WEASEL. 

This  species  is  noticed  by  Dr.  Coues  from  Minnesota,  though 
we  have  never  seen  it.  The  only  external  differences  between 
this  and  the  Ermine  are  the  greater  length  of  the  tail  (f  -  f  as 
long  as  head  and  body)  the  terminal  black  portion  of  which  is 
reduced,  and  the  substitution  of  a  salmon  for  a  sulphur  yellow 
on  the  under  parts.  The  habitat  is  said  to  be  the  Upper  Mis 
souri  region.  It  would  seem  that  a  geographical  variety  or 
race  is  as  high  a  distinction  as  the  form  deserves.  In  addition 
to  the  above  external  differences,  it  is  true,  the  skull  is  said  to 
be  much  wider — half  as  long  as  wide,  the  anteorbital  foramen 
smaller,  the  upper  posterior  premolars  inclined  forward. 

The  species  occupies  the  burrows  of  the  Richardson's  sper- 
mophile. 


118  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


Putorius  vison  BRISSON. 

MINK. 

(PLATE  XVIII.) 

Mustela  vison,  Earlier  writers. 

Lutra  vison  SHAW. 

Putorius  vison.  Modern  writers. 

Mustela  lutreola  FORSTER,  SABINE,  etc. 

Vison  lutreola  GRAY. 

Mustela  canadensis  ERXLEBEN,  etc. 

Mustela  winingus  BARTON. 

Mustela  minx  TURTON. 

Mustela  lutreocephala  HARLAN. 

In  size  and  external  appearance  the  mink  approaches  the 
martens.  The  tail  is  bushy  rather  than  cylindrical,  but  the 
head  is  triangular  and  flat  like  the  weasels.  The  ear  is  very 
small.  The  fur  is  composed  of  a  soft,  dense  under  fur  inter- 
mingled with  long  stiff  shining  hairs.  The  color  is  brown  of 
various  shades,  from  dark  chocolate  to  yellowish.  A  broad 
dorsal  area  is  darkest.  The  chin  is  white,  and  there  may  be 
other  blotches  of  white  on  the  under  parts  which  are  otherwise 
little  lighter  than  the  upper  surface.  As  indicating  the  aquatic 
habit,  the  toes  are  webbed  at  the  bases.  The  mink  is  distrib- 
uted over  N.  America  everywhere  in  suitable  locations.  Our 
species  differs  from  the  European  P.  lutreola  in  a  few  insignifi- 
cant osteological  points  only. 

Coincidentally  with  the  aquatic  habitat,  the  food  of  the 
Mink  is  somewhat  modified,  in  comparison  with  that  of  the 
Jand  species  of  the  genus.  It  is  probably  our  only  species 
which  feeds  habitually  upon  reptiles,  fish,  molluscs,  and  crusta- 
ceans—more particularly  upon  frogs,  fresh-water  bivalves, 
crawfish,  and  the  like.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  confined  to 
such  diet,  but  shows  its  relationships  with  the  terrestrial  Wea- 
sels in  a  wide  range  of  the  same  articles  of  diet  as  the  latter 
secure.  It  is  said  to  prey  upon  Muskrats — a  statement  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  believing,  though  I  cannot  personally  attest  it. 
A  recent  writer,*  in  an  article  which  I  would  quote  were  it 
written  in  a  style  suited  to  the  present  connection,  narrates  an 
incident  which  may  be  here  briefly  related,  as  showing  that 
the  Mink  is  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  Muskrat,  though  yield- 
ing to  the  latter  in  weight.  Whilst  snipe-hunting  on  a  marshy 
island  below  the  Kickapoo  Rapids  of  the  Illinois  River,  the 

*M.  A.  Howell,  jr.    "The  trapper  not  the  only  enemy  of  the  Muskrat."— Forest  and 
Stream  of  Dec.  21,  1876. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  119 

writer  noticed  an  object,  which  appeared  like  a  ball  some  six 
or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  rolling  toward  the  water;  and 
soon  ascertained  that  it  was  a  Mink  and  a  Muskrat  clinched 
together,  and  so  completely  covered  with  mud  as  not  to  have 
been  at  first  recognized.  At  his  approach,  the  Mink  released 
its  hold  and  make  its  escape;  but  the  Muskrat  was  already 
dying  of  severe  wounds  in  the  head  and  neck,  from  which  the 
blood  was  flowing  profusely.  The  Muskrat  had  evidently  been 
captured  and  overcome  in  fair  fight  by  broad  daylight,  and  the 
Mink  would  have  devoured  its  victim  had  not  the  hunter  inter- 
fered. It  is  also  destructive  to  our  native  rats  and  mice — the 
Arvicolas,  Hesperomys,  Sigmodon,  and  Neotoma;  it  is  known  to 
capture  Rabbits,  especially  the  Lepus  palustris,  its  associate  in 
many  marshy  or  swampy  tracts;  while  its  not  infrequent  vis- 
its to  the  poultry-yard  have  gained  for  it  the  hearty  ill-will  of 
the  farmer.  Various  marsh -inhabiting  birds  are  enumerated 
in  the  list  of  its  prey,  among  them  the  rails  and  several 
smaller  species;  and  we  may  presume  that  it  does  not  spare 
their  eggs.  But  most  birds  are  removed  from  its  attack;  for  the 
Mink  is  not  a  climber,  at  least  to  any  extent.  In  respect  to  poul- 
try, its  destructiveness  seems  to  result  rather  from  the  regularly 
repeated  visits  of  an  animal  that  has  located  in  the  vicinity 
than  the  wholesale  slaughtering  sometimes  accomplished  by  the 
Ermine.  According  to  those  who  have  excellent  opportunity  of 
judging,  the  Mink  does  not  as  a  rule  kill  more  than  it  eats. 
Still,  the  opposite  case  has  been  recorded.  Its  modes  of  hunt- 
ing offer  nothing  peculiar.  Like  the  Weasel  and  Stoat,  it  has 
been  known  to  pursue  its  prey  by  scent. 

The  Mink  often  annoys  hunters  by  stealing  the  game  they 
have  shot  before  they  have  an  opportunity  of  bagging  it.  An 
incident  related  by  a  recent  anonymous  writer  in  "Forest  and 
Stream"  is  in  point,  and  furthermore  illustrates  the  wonderful 
energy  and  perseverance  sometimes  displayed  by  the  Mink  in 
securing  its  food.  Speaking  of  a  duck-shooting  excursion, 
during  which  some  of  the  birds  that  had- been  killed  were  not 
recovered  till  next  day,  the  writer  goes  onto  say: — "The  first 
spot  which  claimed  attention,  was  where  our  'hen  mallard' 
had  'struck  hard  pan.'  Here  was  a  sight!  feathers  and  blood 
marked  the  scene  of  a  terrific  struggle  for  what  remained  of  a 
duck's  life.  Here,  for  at  least  ten  feet  in  circuit,  the  snow, 
grass  and  twigs,  were  whipped  into  a  confused  mass,  here  and 
there  besprinkled  with  blood,  and  quite  as  often  decorated 
with  feathers;  then  there  was  a  trail,  leading  directly  to  the 


120  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

/ 

river  bank,  and  out  upon  the  ice;  the  trail  thence  proceeded 
up  the  bank  of  the  river  on  the  ice  for  about  half  a  mile,  when 
it  disappeared  directly  in  line  of  a  hole  in  the  bank,  where  we 
discovered  the  bird  half  buried,  head  foremost,  into  a  hole 
about  one-half  the  size  of  the  body,  frozen  stiff.  When  discov- 
ered we  worked,  not  without  difficulty,  at  the  extrication  of  the 
bird.  It  required  all  our  force  to  draw  it  out,  when,  as  it  broke 
from  its  fastenings,  two  large  Minks  suddenly  appeared,  and 
darted  back  into  their  retreat,  the  last  we  saw  of  the  varmints 
after  a  half  hour  of  close  watching.  The  ground  along  the 
shore  was  rough,  covered  with  heavy  grass,  brush,  drift  wood, 
and  many  willows.  Here  the  natural  obstacles  precluded  the 
possibility  of  such  a  trip  by  land,  and  the  little  piece  of  engi- 
neering practiced  by  this  one  Mink,  in  capturing  and  convey- 
ing home  its  prize,  was  truly  marvellous.  That  there  was  but 
one  Mink,  the  trail  bore  direct  evidence  throughout  its  entire 
length  from  the  scene  of  the  struggle.  As  we  followed  the  line, 
we  could  easily  trace  the  wide  trail  of  the  mallard,  as  it  was 
dragged  bodily  along  over  the  fresh  snow,  and  the  deep  pene- 
tration of  its  claws  into  the  new  ice,  spoke  volumes  of  the  force 
exerted  by  that  small  animal  in  the  completion  of  so  severe 
an  undertaking,  and  the  excessive  amount  of  Mink  poiver  ex- 
pended in  the  completion  of  a  successful  foraging  expedition. 
Here  and  there  thoughout  the  line  of  trail  were  frequent  halt- 
ing places,  where  our  Mink  had  stopped  for  a  rest.  Every 
time  there  appeared  numerous  tracks  around  the  body  of  its 
victim,  as  though  pleased  to  inspect  its  trophy  before  the  next 
heat,  and  then  as  the  distance  shortened,  the  strokes  of  its  tail 
at  regular  intervals  of  march,  marked  upon  the  snow  upon  either 
side  of  the  trail  the  determined  intention  of  the  animal  to  go 
through  with  its  meat  before  it  was  too  cold  to  squeeze  into  a 
small  space,  where  the  sharp  frost  would  soon  fix  it  perma- 
nently. When  drawn  out,  we  found  that  a  couple  of  'square 
meals'  had  been  made  from  the  head,  neck  and  breast,  and 
enough  left  for  several  days  to  come." 

This  account  of  the  Mink's  theft  called  forth  shortly  afterward 
in  the  same  paper  the  following  instance  of  its  stealing  fish;  the 
editor,  Mr.  Charles  Hallock,  remarking  that  he  had  known 
Minks  to  carry  off  fish  weighing  no  less  than  twelve  pounds : — 
"We  were  spending  our  vacation  in  the  woods  of  Maine,  fish- 
ing, and  traveling  about  for  a  good  time  in  general,  One  day  we 
came  across  an  old  dam  made  to  flood  a  piece,  of  lowland.  As 
this  looked  like  a  good  place  to  fish  we  stopped,  seated  our- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  121 

selves  upon  the  edge  of  the  dam,  and  east  in  our  line.  The 
fish  were  quite  plenty,  and  as  fast  as  we  caught  one  we  threw 
it  behind  us  upon  the  scaffolding.  After  a  dozen  or  so  had 
been  caught,  I  thought  I  would  light  my  pipe,  pick  up  the  fish 
and  put  them  in  the  shade,  and  I  started  to  do  so.  I  accom 
plished  the  first  object,  but  upon  looking  for  the  fish  I  could 
not  find  a  single  one.  I  thought  that  my  chum  must  have  re- 
moved them,  and  was  playing  a  joke  upon  me,  but  on  mention- 
ing it  to  him  he  was  as  much  surprised  as  I  was.  They  could 
not  have  fallen  through  the  cracks,  or  leaped  over  the  side 
without  our  knowing  it.  Where  were  they?  That  was  the 
question.  He  returned  to  fish,  and  I  seated  myself  upon  the 
bank  to  digest  the  subject.  Presently  he  caught  another  fish 
and  threw  it  upon  the  boards.  Immediately  I  saw  a  Mink  run 
out  from  a  hole  near  by,  snatch  the  fish  and  carry  it  off.  This 
explained  the  mysterious  disappearance  of  the  others." 

The  movements  of  the  Mink  on  land,  though  sufficiently 
active,  lack  something  of  the  extraordinary  agility  displayed 
by  the  more  lithe  and  slender-bodied  Weasels,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  build  of  its  body;  while,  for  the  same  reason,  it 
does  not  pursue  the  smaller  animals  into  their  extensive  under- 
ground retreats,  nor  so  habitually  prowl  about  stone  heaps 
and  similar  recesses.  It  is  altogether  a  more  openly  aggres- 
sive marauder,  though  not  less  persistent  and  courageous  in 
its  attacks.  It  appears  to  be  more  perfectly  at  home  in  the 
water,  where  it  swims  with  exactly  the  motions  of  an  Otter, 
and  in  fact  appears  like  a  small  specimen  of  that  kind.  It 
swims  with  most  of  the  body  submerged — perhaps  only  the 
end  of  the  nose  exposed— and  progresses  under  water  with  per- 
fect ease,  remaining  long  without  coming  to  the  surface  to 
breathe.  This  may  be  partly  the  reason  of  its  long  survival 
under  the  pressure  of  a  deadfall. 

The  Mink  is  not  properly  a  migratory  animal.  In  most  sec- 
tions it  remains  permanently  where  it  takes  up  its  abode.  In 
others,  however,  it  may  be  forced  to  remove  at  times,  owing  to 
scarcity  or  failure  of  its  food-supply,  such  as  may  ensue  from 
the  freezing  of  the  waters  in  northern  parts.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, it  may  perform  extensive  journeys  overland.  Trap- 
pers have  indeed  spoken  to  me  of  a  ''running"  time  with  the 
Minks,  but  I  cannot  satisfy  myself  that  reference  is  here  had 
to  anything  more  than  periods  of  sexual  activity,  when  the  ani- 
mals are  hunting  mates.  I  do  not  think  that  whatever  "migra- 
tion" may  take  place  is  anything  more  than  casual. 
-8 


122  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  rutting  season  begins  early — generally  February— and 
April  is  for  the  most  part  the  month  of  reproduction,  Five  or 
six  young  are  ordinarily  produced  at  a  birth.  Litters  have  been 
found  in  the  hollow  of  a  log,  as  well  as  in  the  customary  bur- 
rows. 

The  Mink  has  been  frequently  tamed,  and  is  said  to  become, 
with  due  care,  perfectly  gentle  and  tractable,  though  liable  to 
sudden  fits  of  anger,  when  no  one  is  safe  from  its  teeth.  With- 
out showing  special  affection,  it  seems  fond  of  being  caressed, 
and  may  ordinarily  be  handled  with  perfect  impunity.  The 
following  account  of  the  semi-domestication  of  Minks  on  an 
extensive  scale  will  be  read  with  interest,  not  alone  for  its 
novelty,  but  also  because  it  gives  some  precise  information 
respecting  the  reproduction  of  the  species. 

"Minkeries." 

The  Mink  appears  to  be  the  only  species  of  its  genus  which 
has  been  systematically  reared  and  trained  for  ratting  in  this 
country  as  the  Ferret  is  in  Europe.  The  relationship  of  the  two 
animals  at  once  suggests  the  feasibility  of  an  experiment  which 
has  been  tried  with  complete  success,  as  we  learn  from  an  in- 
teresting article  lately  published  in  "Forest  and  Stream"  (Oc- 
tober 22,  1874 — apparently  taken  from  "Fancier's  Journal  and 
Poultry  Exchange"  of  October  15,  1874).  I  reproduce  the  pas- 
sage in  substance. 

Mr.  H.  Resseque,  of  Verona,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y. ,  has  fre- 
quently exhibited  at  fairs  two  tame  female  Minks,  which  he 
hands  to  the  by-standers  to  be  caressed  and  passed  from  one 
to  another.  The  animals  were  perfectly  gentle,  submitting  to 
be  handled,  but  it  was  noticed  that  they  kept  their  eyes  on  their 
keeper,  to  whom  they  would  frequently  extend  their  paws  like 
a  child  wishing  to  be  taken  to  its  parent.  Seven  years  ago, 
Mr.  Resseque  came  in  possession  of  a  live  wild  Mink,  and  through 
her  progeny  his  stock  has  on  some  occasions  amounted  to  ninety 
individuals,  besides  the  numerous  specimens  disposed  of.  At 
the  late  Albany  County  fair,  his  "minkery"  was  one  of  the  novel 
features. 

Mr.  Resseque's  minkery  consists  of  twelve  stalls,  each  twelve 
feet  square,  of  stale  soil,  and  surrounded  with  a  fence  and  some 
special  precautions  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  animals.  In 
each  stall  is  placed  a  dry-goods'  box  for  the  home  of  the  female; 
it  has  two  openings  for  ingress  and  egress,  opposite  each  other, 
besides  a  door  on  top  to  allow  of  inspection  and  cleaning.  The 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  123 

» 

animals  are  fed  on  sound,  fresh  meat,  as  they  do  not  relish 
tainted  flesh.  In  summer  it  is  given  to  them  daily,  but  in  cold 
weather  a  large  quantity  is  thrown  in  at  once  and  allowed  to 
freeze,  the  Minks  helping  themselves  at  pleasure.  In  February, 
their  allowance  is  shortened,  to  get  them  into  condition  for 
breeding.  Mr.  Resseque  claims  that  this  slight  degree  of  fast- 
ing makes  them  more  lively  and  playful,  and  it  is  a  part  of  his 
plan  to  imitate  nature  as  closely  as  possible — their  supply  of 
food,  in  the  wild  state,  being  restricted  at  this  season. 

In  the  minkery,  the  sexes  are  not  allowed  to  run  together  ex- 
cept during  the  month  of  March,  which  is  considered  the  run- 
ning season  in  a  state  of  nature.  If  allowed  together  for  a 
longer  period,  the  male  teases  and  annoys  the  female.  At  this 
time,  the  males  fight  desperately,  and  if  not  soon  separated  one 
always  gets  the  mastery.  The  females  come  in  heat  with  great 
regularity,  all  being  ready  for  the  male  within  ten  days;  and  the 
period  of  excitement  lasts  about  four  days.  One  male  serves 
six  females.  The  females  reproduce  when  one  year  old.  The 
duration  of  gestation  scarcely  varies  twelve  hours  from  six 
weeks.  There  is  but  one  litter  annually.  The  litters  run  from 
three  to  ten  in  number;  the  young  are  born  blind,  and  remain 
so  for  five  weeks.  When  newly  born,  they  are  light-colored, 
hairless,  and  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  little  finger.  By 
the  time  the  eyes  are  open,  they  are  covered  with  a  beautiful 
coat  of  glossy  hair.  The  young  females  develop  sooner  than 
the  males,  attaining  their  stature  in  ten  months,  while  the  males 
are  not  full-grown  until  they  are  a  year  and  a  half  old.  It  is 
noted  that  in  every  litter  one  or  the  other  sex  predominates  in 
numbers,  there  being  rarely  half  of  them  males  and  the  other 
half  females.  If  taken  in  hand  when  their  eyes  are  first  open, 
they  are  readily  tamed;  they  should  not  subsequently  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  with  the  mother  or  in  each  other's  society.  By 
continual  petting  and  handling,  they  become  like  domestic  rat- 
ters, and  have  all  the  playfulness  of  the  young  of  the  feline 
tribe.  They  may  be  handled,  without  fear  of  their  sharp  teeth, 
but  they  prove  extremely  mischievous,  their  scent  leading  them 
to  food  not  intended  for  them.  Their  fondness  for  bathing  will 
prompt  them  to  enter  a  tea-kettle  or  any  open  vessel;  and  when 
wetted  they  will  roll  and  dry  themselves  in  a  basket  of  clothes 
fresh  from  the  laundry,  or  even  upon  a  lady's  dress,  occasion  - 
ing  much  inconvenience. 

Minks  are  not  burrowing  animals  in  a  state  of  nature,  but 
freely  avail  themselves  of  the  holes  of  Muskrats  and  other  ver- 


124  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

min.  They  cannot  climb  a  smooth  surface,  but  ascend  readily 
where  there  is  roughness  enough  for  a  nail  hold.  The  grown 
male  will  weigh  about  two  pounds;  the  female  is  heavier  than 
she  looks,  averaging  between  one  and  a  half  and  one  and  three  - 
fourths  pounds.  These  tame  Minks  make  excellent  ratters, 
hunt  vigorously,  and  soon  exterminate  the  troublesome  pests. 
Rats  will  make  off  on  scenting  them,  they  are  so  bewildered 
in  flight  that  they  give  no  battle,  but  yield  at  once;  and  the 
Mink  severs  the  main  vessels  of  the  neck  so  quickly  and  skil- 
fully that  an  observer  would  scarcely  imagine  the  deed  had 
been  done. 

When  wild  Minks  are  confined  with  the  tame  ones,  the  latter 
always  prove  stronger  than  the  former,  and  come  off  victorious 
in  the  contests  that  ensue.  They  have  been  observed  to  beat 
off  a  cat  that  imprudently  invaded  the  minkery  in  quest  of  food. 
So  completely  domesticated  are  the  animals  that  a  person  may 
enter  the  inclosure  with  impunity,  and  observe  the  animals 
playing  about  him  like  kittens. 

Mr.  Resseque  states  that  he  finds  ready  sale  for  his  Minks — 
in  fact,  that  he  cannot  supply  the  demand.  His  prices  are  $30 
per  pair— $20  for  a  female,  $10  for  a  male,  and  $25  for  an  im- 
pregnated female.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  novel  branch  of 
industry  will  be  perpetuated  and  extended.  There  are  plenty 
of  Minks  in  this  country,  the  services  of  which  are  available 
without  difficulty  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  vermin,  and  in 
the  aggregate  their  good  services  would  have  a  very  decidedly 
appreciable  result.  They  have  a  great  advantage  over  terrier 
dogs  in  being  able  to  enter  any  ordinary  rat-hole  and  drive  their 
prey  from  its  hidden  resorts. 

From  the  "Forest  and  Stream"  of  July  2,  1874,  the  following 
article  is  extracted  in  further  illustration  of  this  branch  of 
industry : — 

"Messrs.  Phillips  &  Woodcock,  of  Cancadea,  New  York, 
commenced  two  years  ago  the  business  of  breeding  Mink  for 
their  fur.  A  correspondent  of  the  Buffalo  Express  describes 
the  'Minkery'  in  the  following  terms:— 

"  'The  "Minkery,"  designed  to  accommodate  one  hundred 
Minks  for  breeding,  consists  first  of  an  enclosure  about  forty  feet 
square,  made  by  digging  a  trench  one  foot  deep,  laying  a  plank  at 
the  bottom,  and  from  the  outer  edge  starting  the  wall,  which 
consists  of  boards  four  feet  high,  with  a  board  to  cap  the  top, 
projecting  upward  eight  or  ten  inches  to  prevent  their  climbing 
over.  Within  this  enclosure  is  a  building  14  by  24,  supplied  by 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  125 

running  water,  from  which  the  Mink  catch  living  fish,  that  are 
often  furnished,  with  the  greatest  delight. 

"  'The  building  is  constructed  by  an  alley  three  feet  wide 
around  its  circumference.  Within  are  two  rows  of  cells  four 
feet  deep  and  two  and  a  half  wide,  each  having  a  door  venti- 
lated at  the  top  and  bottom  with  wire  screens,  as  is  also  the  front 
entrance,  what  the  proprietors  call  the  anteroom,  four  by  four 
feet,  which  must  be  fastened  within  every  time  the  building  is 
entered,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  imprisoned  animals.  On 
entering  the  main  hall,  which  the  Minks  have  access  to  (when 
not  rearing  their  young),  they  present  a  very  playful  group. 

"  'The  person  feeding  them  is  often  mounted,  for  their  food 
and  their  tenacity  of  hold  is  so  strong  that  they  may  be  drawn 
about  or  lifted  without  releasing  their  hold  upon  the  food.  The 
nest  of  the  female  is  very  peculiarly  constructed  with  grass, 
leaves,  or  straw,  with  a  lining  of  her  own  fur  so  firmly  com- 
pacted together  as  to  be  with  difficulty  torn  in  pieces.  The 
aperture  leading  to  the  nest  is  a  round  opening,  just  sufficient 
to  admit  the  dam,  and  is  provided  with  a  deflected  curtain, 
which  covers  the  entrance  and  effectually  secures  her  against 
all  invasion  when  she  is  within.  About  the  middle  of  March 
the  females  are  separated  from  the  males  until  the  young  are 
reared.  The  necessity  for  this  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
males  seem  inclined  to  brood  the  young  almost  as  much  as  the 
dam,  when  both  are  permitted  to  remain  together. 

"  'The  expense  of  feeding  these  animals  is  almost  nominal, 
being  supplied  pretty  much  entirely  from  the  usual  offal  of  a 
farm  yard,  with  occasional  woodchucks  and  game  in  general. 
They  eat  this  food  with  equal  avidity  after  decomposition  has 
taken  place,  devouring  every  particle  of  flesh,  cartilage,  and  the 
bones.  The  flesh  and  bones  entire  of  the  woodchuck  are  con- 
sumed often  at  a  single  meal.  While  the  expense  of  keeping 
is  thus  trivial,  the  profitable  yield  of  the  animal  is  compara- 
tively immense,  it  being  considered  a  moderate  estimate  or 
claim  that  the  Mink  with  her  increase  will  equal  the  avails  of  a 
cow.'" 

We  find  in  Audubon  and  Bachman  several  paragraphs  upon 
the  same  subject,  which  will  be  transcribed: — "The  Mink,  when 
taken  young,  becomes  very  gentle,  and  forms  a  strong  attach- 
ment (?)  to  those  who  fondle  it  in  a  state  of  domestication. 
Richardson  saw  one  in  the  possession  of  a  Canadian  woman, 
that  passed  the  day  in  her  pocket,  looking  out  occasionally 
when  its  attention  was  roused  by  any  unusual  noise.  We  had 


126  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

in  our  possession  a  pet  of  this  kind  for  eighteen  months;  it 
regularly  made  a  visit  to  an  adjoining  fish  pond  both  morning 
and  evening,  and  returned  to  the  house  of  its  own  accord,  where 
it  continued  during  the  remainder  of  the  day.  It  waged  war 
against  the  Norway  rats  which  had  their  domicile  in  the  dam 
that  formed  the  fish-pond,  and  it  caught  the  frogs  which  had 
taken  possession  of  its  banks.  We  did  not  perceive  that  it 
captured  many  fish,  and  it  never  attacked  the  poultry.  It  was 
on  good  terms  with  the  dogs  and  cats,  and  molested  no  one 
unless  its  tail  or  foot  was  accidentally  trod  upon,  when  it  inva- 
riably revenged  itself  by  snapping  at  the  foot  of  the  offender. 
It  was  rather  dull  at  midday,  but  very  active  and  playful  in  the 
morning  and  evening  and  at  night.  It  never  emitted  its  dis- 
agreeable odour  except  when  it  had  received  a  sudden  and 
severe  hurt.  It  was  fond  of  squatting  in  the  chimney  corner, 
and  formed  a  particular  attachment  to  an  armchair  in  our  study. 

"The  latter  end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March,  in 
the  latitude  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  is  the  rutting  season  of  the  Mink. 
At  this  period  the  ground  is  usually  still  covered  with  snow, 
but  the  male  is  notwithstanding  very  restless,  and  his  tracks 
may  everywhere  be  traced,  along  ponds,  among  the  slabs  around 
sawmills,  and  along  nearly  every  stream  of  water.  He  seems 
to  keep  on  foot  all  day  as  well  as  through  the  whole  night. 
Having  for  several  days  in  succession  observed  a  number  of 
Minks  on  the  ice  hurrying  up  and  down  a  millpond,  where  we 
had  not  observed  any  during  the  whole  winter,  we  took  a 
position  near  a  place  which  we  had  seen  them  pass,  in  order  to 
procure  some  of  them.  We  shot  six  in  the  course  of  the  morn- 
ing, and  ascertained  that  they  were  all  large  and  old  males.  As 
we  did  not  find  a  single  female  in  a  week,  whilst  we  obtained 
a  great  number  of  males,  we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
females,  during  this  period,  remain  in  their  burrows.  About 
the  latter  end  of  April  the  young  are  produced.  We  saw  six 
young  dug  from  a  hole  in  the  bank  of  a  Carolina  rice  field;  on 
another  occasion  we  found  five  enclosed  in  a  large  nest  situated 
on  a  small  island  in  the  marshes  of  Ashley  river.  In  the  State 
of  New  York,  we  saw  five  taken  from  a  hollow  log,  and  we  are 
inclined  to  set  down  that  as  the  average  number  of  young  the 
species  brings  forth  at  a  time." 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter  from  Dr.  T.  S.  Roberts, 
gives  a  vivid  account  of  an  episode  in  the  life  of  the  mink  : 

"Passing  through  a  tamarack  swamp,  December  7th,  1877,  I 
came  upon  a  trail  in  the  snow  made  apparently  by  the  body  of 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  127 

some  small  animal  while  being  dragged  along.  My  curiosity 
being  aroused,  I  followed  it  a  short  distance  out  from  among 
the  tamaracks  into  the  bushy  meadow  adjoining.  Here  I  came 
upon  a  place  where  the  snow  had  been  beaten  down  in  a  circular 
spot,  the  weeds  and  bushes  having  been  lashed  about — evi- 
dently the  scene  of  an  encounter  of  some  kind.  Going  a 
few  steps  farther,  I  found  there  were  now  two  tracks,  one 
made  by  a  rabbit  in  full  run,  and  the  other  by  some  small 
animal,  evidently  a  mink.  The  pursuit  had  been  a  hot  one, 
and  the  mink  had  showed  his  cunning  by  keeping  a  little  to  one 
side  of  the  rabbit  that  he  might  take  advantage  of  any  curve  or 
turn  made  by  the  latter.  Having  learned  this  much,  I  turned 
about  and  followed  the  trail  made  by  the  body  of  the  captured 
rabbit.  Straight  into  the  middle  of  the  tamarack  swamp  it 
went,  to  a  small  stream  flowing  in  a  narrow,  ditch-like  channel- 
Here  on  the  frozen  stream  I  found  the  rabbit  dragged  into 
a  narrow  place  between  the  banks  of  the  ditch.  It  was  the 
little  grey  rabbit  (Lepus  sylvaticus).  A  round  hole  just  back  of 
the  ear  on  the  left  side,  showed  how  the  life  blood  had  been 
drawn. 

Near  this  creek  I  noticed  other  places  where  this  mink  had 
been  chasing  rabbits,  but  without  success.  A  short  distance 
up  the  creek  I  found  where  another  rabbit  had  been  dragged 
into  the  ditch,  but  it  was  not  frozen  here,  and  the  body  could 
not  be  found." 

The  following  observations  given  by  Prof.  C  L.  Webster* 
may  serve  to  give  some  insight  into  the  domestic  habits  of  the 
mink.  Opportunities  for  such  observation  are,  unfortunately, 
exceedingly  rare  in  all  the  fur-bearing  animals,  and  the  present 
case  may  serve  as  a  foil  to  the  less  pleasant  picture  afforded  by 
Dr.  Roberts,  of  the  disposition  of  another  member  of  the  same 
group  : 

' '  While  engaged  in  geological  work  on  the  Cedar  river,  near 
Osage,  Iowa,  my  attention  was  attracted  by  the  peculiar  actions 
of  a  mink  (Putorius  visori).  By  careful  maneuvering  we  were  en- 
abled to  approach  to  within  a  short  distance  of  where  it  was  en- 
gaged, and  there  watch  its  behavior  unobserved.  It  was  an  old 
mother  mink  engaged  in  fishing  for  her  young.  On  the  ripples 
in  the  centre  of  the  stream,  where  the  water  was  not  more 
than  two  feet  in  depth,  was  a  flat  drift  boulder  rising  a  few 
inches  above  the  surface.  On  this  rock  the  mother  mink  would 
take  her  position  and  here  watch  for  small  fish  to  approach, 

*Am.  Naturalist.  March,-1889,  p.  176. 


128      .  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

when  she  would  dive  into  the  water,  be  gone  for  a  moment  and 
then  reappear  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  rock,  usually  with  a 
fish  in  her  mouth,  which  she  would  deposit  in  the  centre  of  the 
stone,  and  its  struggles  instantly  stop  by  a  quick,  sharp  bite 
back  of  the  head,  which  caused  immediate  death.  This  process 
was  repeated  without  intermission,  except  to  stop  for  an  instant 
to  shake  the  water  from  her  furry  coat,  until  seven  fish,  vary- 
ing from  four  to  seven  inches  in  length,  were  deposited  upon 
the  rock.  Then,  without  stopping  to  rest,  taking  one  fish  in 
her  mouth,  she  plunged  into  the  stream  and  swam  ashore, 
climbed  up  the  steep  bank  and  ran  hastily  to  her  young,  in  a 
burrow  under  an  old  stump  on  the  bank  of  the  stream,  fifty 
yards  away.  In  a  moment  she  was  seen  returning,  plunged 
into  the  stream  and  swam  to  the  rock,  took  a  second  fish  in  her 
mouth,  entered  the  river  once  more,  and  returned  to  her  young 
as  at  first.  This  was  repeated  until  all  the  fish  had  been  carried 
away.  A  few  moments  after  having  removed  the  last  fish,  she 
returned  and  began  her  work  once  more.  This  time,  however, 
her  labors  were  without  result;  so,  shifting  her  position  to  an- 
other rock  in  the  stream  a  short  distance  away,  she  continued 
her  fishing.  But,  although  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  was 
spent  in  energetic  effort,  her  labors  were  without  avail,  and 
she  was  this  time  compelled  to  return  to  her  young  empty 
handed." 

"From  the  bank  of  the  stream,  where  egress  from  the  water 
was  made,  to  the  burrow,  fifty  yards  distant,  a  well  beaten  path 
had  been  formed  by  the  mother  mink  in  her  daily  excursions  in 
quest  of  food  for  her  young." 

SUBFAMILY  LUTRINJE. 

THE  OTTERS. 

Several  closely  allied  subgenera  of  aquatic  Mustelidce  con. 
stitute  this  group,  which  is  represented  in  most  parts  of  the 
earth,  but  in  North  America  by  but  a  single  species.  The 
elongated  body  is  supported  on  very  short  limbs.  The  neck  is 
not  as  long  as  in  the  weasels,  and  the  tail  is  tapering  and  flat- 
tened. The  dentition  is  highly  carnivorous,  i.  |,  c.  },  p  m.  |, 
m.  \  x  2=36.  In  the  genus  Lutra  the  skull  is  much  depressed 
and  flattened  on  top,  the  dorsal  outline  being  nearly  straight. 
The  rostral  portion  is  short.  The  palate  extends  beyond  the 
molars,  anteorbital  foramen  very  large.  The  pterygoids  are 
hamular. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  129 

Lutra  canadensis  Guv. 

OTTER. 

(Plate  XIX.) 

Lutra  canadensis  most  earlier  writers. 

Latax  canadensis  GRAY. 

Lutra  hudsonica  F.  Cuv. 

Lutra  lataxina  F.  Cuv. 

Lataxina  mollis  GRAY. 

Lutra  calif ornica  BAIRD. 

Coues  gives  the  following  diagnostic  points:  ''Orbits  well 
defined  by  prominent  conical  postorbital  processes,  the  distance 
between  the  tips  of  which  is  one-half  or  more  of  the  intermas- 
toid  width  of  the  skull.  Inner  depressed  moiety  of  posterior 
upper  premolar  as  large  and  nearly  as  long  as  the  main  outer 
moiety;  general  dentition  strong,  nose  pad  large." 

The  otter  is  frequently  over  four  feet  in  length,  the  tail 
measuring  about  eighteen  inches.  The  head  is  rounded  and 
short-muzzled,  the  eyes  and  ears  being  small,  the  former  being 
half  way  to  the  snout.  The  fur  is  very  dense  and  glossy,  the 
under  fur  being  close  and  abundant.  The  feet  are  almost  com- 
pletely webbed.  The  color  is  a  dark  rich  brown  with  a  pur- 
plish cast,  darkest  on  the  back  and  root  of  the  tail.  The  female 
is  similar  to,  but  smaller  than  the  male. 

The  otter  was  distributed  throughout  the  United  States  in 
suitable  locations  though  now  becoming  rare  in  all  but  remote 
districts.  A  few  individuals  seem  still  to  cling  to  their  old 
haunts  in  many  places.  In  Mexico  a  slightly  different  species 
or  variety  exists  and  in  South  America  a  still  different  form. 
Although  the  otter  is  not  rare  in  many  parts  of  Minnesota,  no 
specimen  has  been  encountered  in  the  field  explorations  nor 
yet  authentic  indications  of  its  presence.  I  am  again  con- 
strained to  quote  from  Coues'  Mustelidse,  pp.  313-319. 

Habits  of  Otters. 

Although  I  have  observed  the  "seal"  of  the  Otter  and  its 
curious  "slides"  in  various  parts  of  our  country  during  the  years 
I  have  been  a  student  of  our  animals,  I  cannot  truly  aver  that 
I  have  ever  laid  eyes  upon  a  living  individual;  and  to  speak 
of  its  habits,  I  must  give  information  at  second  hand.  Pre- 
suming upon  the  reader's  knowledge  of  the  thoroughly  aquatic 
and  highly  piscivorous  nature  of  the  animal,  I  turn  to  the  vari- 
ous histories  at  our  disposal  in  further  elucidation  of  its  habits  • 


130  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

According  to  Richardson,  one  of  the  earliest  authors  giving 
accounts  of  the  species  with  precision,  "the  Canada  Otter  re- 
sembles the  European  species  in  its  habits  and  food.  In  the 
winter  season,  it  frequents  rapids  and  falls,  to  have  the  advant- 
age of  open  water;  and  when  its  usual  haunts  are  frozen  over, 
it  will  travel  to  a  great  distance  through  the  snow,  in  search 
of  a  rapid  that  has  resisted  the  severity  of  the  weather.  If 
seen,  and  pursued  by  hunters  on  these  journies,  it  will  throw 
itself  forward  on  its  belly,  and  slide  through  the  snow  for  sev- 
eral yards,  leaving  a  deep  furrow  behind  it.  This  movement  is 
repeated  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  even  a  swift  runner  on 
snow-shoes  has  much  trouble  in  overtaking  it.  It  also  doubles 
on  its  track  with  much  cunning,  and  dives  under  the  snow  to 
elude  its  pursuers.  When  closely  pressed,  it  will  turn  and  de- 
fend itself  with  great  obstinacy.  In  the  spring  of  1826,  at  Great 
Bear  Lake,  the  Otters  frequently  robbed  our  nets,  which  were 
set  under  the  ice,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards  from  a  piece  of 
open  water.  They  generally  carried  off  the  heads  of  the  fish, 
and  left  the  bodies  sticking  in  the  net. 

"TheCannada  Otter  has  one  litter  annually,  about  the  middle 
of  April,  of  from  one  to  three  young." 

In  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  Audubon  says  they  are 
about  one  month  earlier.* 

The  sliding  of  the  Otter,  which  Sir  John  describes,  is  not  alone 
resorted  to  in  the  endeavor  to  avoid  pursuit;  and  again,  it  is 
something  more  than  simply  an  easy  way  of  slipping  down  a 
wet  sloping  bank  into  the  water.  It  seems  to  be  a  favorite 
amusement  of  this  creature,  "just  for  fun.".  Godman  speaks 
of  the  diversion  in  the  following  terms: — "Their  favorite  sport 
is  sliding,  and  for  this  purpose  in  winter  the  highest  ridge  of 
snow  is  selected,  to  the  top  of  which  the  Otters  scramble,  where, 
lying  on  the  belly  with  the  fore-feet  bent  backwards,  they  give 
themselves  an  impulse  with  their  hind  legs  and  swiftly  glide 
head-foremost  down  the  declivity,  sometimes  for  the  distance 
of  twenty  yards.  This  sport  they  continue  apparently  with  the 
keenest  enjoyment  until  fatigue  or  hunger  induces  them  to 
desist." 

Statements  of  similar  import  are  made  by  various  writers, 
and  accord  with  Audubon's  personal  observations,  as  rendered 
by  him  in  the  following  language: — 

*According  to  Bell,  the  European  Otter  goes  with  young  nine  weeks,  and  produces 
three  to  five  young  ones  in  March  or  April  (Brit.  Quad.  1837,  136).  The  period  of  gestation 
of  our  species,  if  different,  probably  remains  to  be  ascertained. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  131 

"The  Otters  ascend  the  bank  at  a  place  suitable  for  their 
diversion,  and  sometimes  where  it  is  very  steep,  so  that  they 
are  obliged  to  make  quite  an  effort  to  gain  the  top;  they  slide 
down  in  rapid  succession  where  there  are  many  at  a  sliding 
place.  On  one  occasion  we  were  resting  ourself  on  the  bank 
of  Canoe  Creek,  a  small  stream  near  Henderson,  which  empties 
into  the  Ohio,  when  a  pair  of  Otters  made  their  appearance, 
and  not  observing  our  proximity,  began  to  enjoy  their  sliding 
pastime.  They  glided  down  the  soap-like  muddy  surface  of 
the  slide  with  the  rapidity  of  an  arrow  from  a  bow,  [*]  and  we 
counted  each  one  making  twenty  two  slides  before  we  dis- 
turbed their  sportive  occupation. 

"This  habit  of  the'  Otter  of  sliding  down  from  elevated 
places  to  the  borders  of  streams,  is  not  confined  to  cold  coun- 
tries, or  to  slides  on  the  snow  or  ice,  but  is  pursued  in  the 
Southern  States,  where  the  earth  is  seldom  covered  with  snow, 
or  the  waters  frozen  over.  Along  the  reserve  dams  of  the  rice 
fields  of  Carolina  and  Georgia,  these  slides  are  very  common. 
From  the  fact  that  this  occurs  in  most  cases  during  winter, 
about  the  period  of  the  rutting  season,  we  are  inclined  to  the 
belief  that  this  propensity  may  be  traced  to  those  instincts 
which  lead  the  sexes  to  their  periodical  associations." 

The  food  of  the  Otter,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  pro- 
cured, are  noted  by  the  same  author  in  the  following  terms:— 

"The  Otter  is  a  very  expert  swimmer,  and  can  overtake 
almost  any  fish,  and  as  it  is  a  voracious  animal,  it  doubtless 
destroys  a  great  number  of  fresh  water  fishes  annually.  We 
are  not  aware  of  its  having  a  preference  for  any  particular 
species,  although  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  has.  About 
twenty-five  years  ago  we  went  early  one  autumnal  morning  to 
study  the  habits  of  the  Otter  at  Gordon  and  Spring's  Ferry, 
on  the  Cooper  River,  six  miles  above  Charleston  [S.  C.],  where 
they  were  represented  as  being  quite  abundant.  They  came 
down  with  the  receding  tide  in  groups  or  families  of  five  or  six 
together.  In  the  space  of  two  hours  we  counted  forty -six. 
They  soon  separated,  ascended  the  different  creeks  in  the  salt 
marshes,  and  engaged  in  capturing  mullets  (Mugil).  In  most 
cases  they  came  to  the  bank  with  a  fish  in  their  mouth,  des- 
patching it  in  a  minute,  and  then  hastened  back  again  after 
more  prey.  They  returned  up  the  river  to  their  more  secure 
retreats  with  the  rising  tide.  In  the  small  lakes  and  ponds  of 
the  interior  of  Carolina,  there  is  found  a  favourite  fish  with  the 
Otter,  called  the  fresh- water  trout  (Grystes  salmoides). 

*[  A  statement  certainly  too  figurative  for  literal  acceptation."] 


132  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

"Athough  the  food  of  the  Otter  in  general  is  fish,  yet  when 
hard  pressed  by  hunger  it  will  not  reject  animal  food  of  any 
kind.  Those  we  had  in  confinement,  when  no  fish  could  be 
procured  were  fed  on  beef,  which  they  always  preferred  boiled. 
During  the  last  winter  we  ascertained  that  the  skeleton  and 
feathers  of  a  wild  duck  were  taken  from  an  Otter's  nest  on  the 
banks  of  a  rice  field  reserve-dam.  It  was  conjectured  that  the 
duck  had  either  been  killed  or  wounded  by  the  hunters,  and 
was  in  this  state  seized  by  the  Otter,  .... 

"On  throwing  some  live  fishes  into  a  small  pond  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  in  London,  where  an  Otter  [presumably, 
however,  of  another  species]  was  kept  alive,  it  immediately 
plunged  off  the  bank  after  them,  and  soon  securing  one,  rose 
to  the  surface  holding  its  prize  in  its  teeth,  and  ascending  the 
banks,  rapidly  ate  it  by  large  mouthfuls,  and  dived  into  the 
water  again  for  another.  This  it  repeated  until  it  had  caug!.t 
and  eaten  all  the  fish  which  had  been  thrown  into  the  water  for 
its  use.  When  thus  engaged  in  devouring  the  luckless  fishes 
theOtter  bit :throught  them,  crushing  the  bones,  which  we  could 
hear  snapping  under  the  pressure  of  its  powerful  jaws." 

The  nest  of  the  European  Otter  is  said  to  be  formed  of  grass 
and  other  herbage,  and  to  be  usually  placed  in  some  hole  of  a 
river's  bank,  protected  either  by  the  overhanging  bank  or  by 
the  projecting  roots  of  some  tree.  Its  fossorial  ability,  and  the 
general  intelligence  it  displays  in  the  construction  of  its  re- 
treats, have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  some  writers,  to  judge 
by  the  more  temperate  language  used  by  the  distinguished 
author  of  the  History  of  British  Quadrupeds.  "We  read  of  its 
excavating  a  very  artificial  habitation,"  says  Bell,  "burrowing 
under  ground  to  a  considerable  distance;  making  the  aperture 
of  its  retreat  always  under  water,  and  working  upwards,  form- 
ing here  and  there  a  lodge,  or  dry  resting-place,  till  it  reaches 
the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  extremity  of  its  burrow,  and 
making  there  a  breathing- hole,  always  in  the  middle  of  a  bush 
or  thicket.  [*].  This  statement  is  wholly  incorrect.  The  Otter 
avails  itself  of  any  convenient  excavation,  particularly  of  the 
hollows  beneath  the  overhanging  roots  of  trees  which  grow  on 
the  banks  of  rivers,  or  any  other  secure  and  concealed  hole 
near  its  fishing  haunt;  though  in  some  cases  it  fixes  its  retreat 
at  some  distance  from  the  water,  and  when  driven  by  a  scanty 

*[The  author  remarks  the  similarity  of  such  an  account  with  that  given  by  Mr. 
George  Bennett  in  describing  the  retreats  of  the  Ornithorhynchua  of  Australia,  though 
the  former  Is  found  in  books  published  long  prior  tj  the  discovery  of  the  latter 
animal.] 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  133 

supply  of  fish,  it  has  been  known  to  resort  far  inland,  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  farm -yard,  and  attack  lambs,  sucking 
pigs,  and  poultry, — thus  assuming  for  a  time  the  habits  of  its 
more  terrestrial  congeners. "  I  am  not  aware  that  such  extrav- 
agant statements  have  been  made,  with  any  authority  at  least, 
respecting  the  American  Otter;  and  indeed  one  has  only  to 
regard  the  general  configuration  of  the  animal,  and  particu- 
larly the  shape  of  the  fore  limbs  and  condition  of  the  claws,  to 
become  convinced  that  the  mining  operations  of  the  animal 
are  necessarily  limited.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  under- 
ground retreats  of  the  Otter  are  consiructed  with  the  skill  and 
ingenuity  of  even  those  of  the  Muskrat.  A  retreat  examined 
by  Audubon  has  been  thus  described  by  this  author: — 

"One  morning  we  observed  that  some  of  these  animals  re- 
sorted to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  root  of  a  large  tree  which 
stood  on  the  side  of  the  pond  opposite  to  us,  and  with  its  over- 
hanging branches  shaded  the  water.  After  a  fatiguing  walk 
through  the  tangled  cane  brake  and  thick  under- wood  which 
bordered  the  sides  of  this  lonely  place,  we  reached  the  opposite 
side  of  the  pond  near  the  large  tree,  and  moved  cautiously 
through  the  mud  and  water  to  its  roots:  but  the  hearing  or 
sight  of  the  Otters  was  attracted  to  us,  and  we  saw  several  of 
them  hastily  make  off  at  our  approach.  On  sounding  the  tree 
with  the  butt  of  our  gun,  we  discovered  that  it  was  hollowr,  and 
then  having  placed  a  large  stick  in  a  slanting  position  against 
the  trunk,  we  succeeded  in  reaching  the  lowest  bough,  and 
thence  climbed  up  to  a  broken  branch  from  which  an  aperture 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  hollow  enabled  us  to  examine  the 
interior.  At  the  bottom  there  was  quite  a  large  space  or  cham- 
ber to  which  the  Otters  retired,  but  whether  for  security  or  to 
sleep  we  could  not  decide.  Next  morning  we  returned  to  the 
spot,  accompanied  by  one  of  our  neighbours,  and  having  ap- 
proached and  stopped  up  the  entrance  under  water  as  noise- 
lessly as  possible,  we  cut  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  tree  four  or 
five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  as  soon  as  it  was  large  enough 
to  admit  our  heads,  we  peeped  in  and  discovered  three  Otters 
on  a  sort  of  bed  composed  of  the  inner  bark  of  trees  and  other 
soft  substances,  such  as  water  grasses.  We  continued  cutting 
the  hole  we  had  made  larger,  and  when  sufficiently  widened, 
took  some  green  saplings,  split  them  at  the  but-end,  and  man- 
aged to  fix  the  head  of  each  animal  firmly  to  the  ground  by 
passing  one  of  these  split  pieces  over  his  neck,  and  then  press- 
ing the  stick  forcibly  downwards.  Our  companion  then  crept 


134  BULLETIN   NO.    VTI. 

into  the  hollow,  and  soon  killed  the  Otters,  with  which  we 
returned  home." 

Their  structure  being  identical,  the  American  and  European 
Otters  cannot  differ  in  their  general  movements  and  attitudes. 
In  speaking  of  the  conformation  of  the  latter  species,  Bell 
remarks  that  evidently  every  facility  consistent  with  the  preser- 
vation of  its  structural  relations  with  the  rest  of  the  group  is 
given  to  the  Otter  for  the  pursuit  and  capture  of  its  proper 
food.  "It  swims  and  dives  with  great  readiness  and  with  pecu- 
liar ease  and  elegance  of  movement;  and  although  its  action 
on  land  is  far  from  being  awkward  and  difficult,  yet  it  is  cer- 
tainly in  the  water  that  the  beautiful  adaptation  of  its  structure 
to  its  habits  is  most  strikingly  exhibited.  It  swims  in  nearly 
a  horizontal  position,  and  dives  instantaneously  after  the  fish 
that  may  glide  beneath  it,  or  pursues  it  under  water,  changing 
its  course  as  the  fish  darts  in  various  directions  to  escape  from 
it,  and  when  the  prey  is  secured,  brings  it  on  shore  to  its  retreat 
to  feed." 

Yielding  a  pelt  of  great  beauty  and  value,  from  the  exqui- 
site softness  and  rich  warm  color  of  the  fur,  as  well  as  from 
the  size  of  the  animal,  the  American  Otter  is  systematically 
pursued  by  professional  trappers.  I  have  already  given  some 
figures  showing  the  thousands  annually  destroyed,  and  will 
condense  from  Mr.  Gibson's  work,  already  often  quoted,  the  ac- 
count of  the  various  methods  employed — for  every  trapper  has 
his  own  notions  and  ways  of  doing  things,  and  in  the  pursuit 
of  so  valuable  and  so  wary  a  creature  as  the  Otter  there  is 
room  for  large  and  varied  experience.  The  animal  seems  to  be 
taken  in  this  country  usually,  if  not  invariably,  with  the  steel 
trap,  a  special  size  and  make  of  which,  with  two  springs,  goes 
by  the  name  of  "Otter  trap."  Searching  for  a  "slide,"  or  place 
where  the  animal  habitually  crawls  from  the  water  up  the 
bank  the  hunter  sets  the  trap  on  the  spot,  a  few  inches  under 
water.  No  bait  is  here  required;  and  devices  are  used  in  se- 
curing the  trap  by  which  the  animal  may  be  led  into  deep 
water  when  caught,  or  lifted  upward,  the  design  in  either  case 
being  to  prevent  the  animal's  escape  by  gnawing  off  the  im- 
prisoned limb.  The  trap  may  also  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
slide,  two  or  three  feet  back  of  the  slope,  in  a  place  hollowed 
to  receive  it,  and  covered  with  snow.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, care  is  taken  not  to  handle  the  trap'  with  the  bare 
hands.  It  is  scented  with  various  animal  odors,  and,  to  fur- 
ther insure  success,  a  "way"  is  made  to  the  trap  by  means  of 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  135 

parallel  logs.     The  trap  is  sometimes  simply  set  in  the  beaten 
track  made  in  the  snow,  carefully  hidden;  or  at  the  entrance 
of  the  burrow;  or  at  the  base  of  a  slanting  log  with  one  end 
under  water,  the  Otter  being  attracted  by  bait  or  odor  placed 
beyond  on  the  other  end;   or   a  rock   which  projects  over  a 
stream  is  utilized  in  the  same  way.     In  all  these  methods,  the 
utmost  care  is  necessary  to  obliterate  traces  of  the  trapper's 
presence,  as  the  sight  and  smell  of  the  Otter  are  acute,  and  his 
wariness,  caution,  and  sagacity  at  a  very  high  rate.     "In  win 
ter  when  the  ponds  and  rivers  are  frozen  over  the  Otters  make 
holes  through  the  ice  at  which  they  come  up  to  devour  their 
prey.     Where  the  water  is  a  foot  deep  beneath  any  of  these 
holes  the  trap  may  be  set  in  the  bottom,  the  chain  being  se- 
cured to  a  heavy  stone.     When  the  Otter  endeavors  to  emerge 
from  the  hole  he  will  press  his  foot  on  the  trap  and  thus  be 
caught.     If  the  water  is    deep  enough  beneath  the  hole  the 
trap  may  be  baited  with  a  small  fish  attached  to  the  pan,  and 
then  carefully  lowered  with  its  chain  and  stone  to  the  bottom. 
For  this  purpose  the  Newhouse,  No.  3,  is  best  adapted,  as  the 
Otter  is  in  this  case  caught  by  the  head." 

FAMILY  URSID^E. 

THE  BEARS,  RACCOONS,  ETC. 

This  very  large  and  interesting  family  is  represented  within 
our  limits  by  two  species  representing  the  two  sub-families. 
The  family  is  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  globe  where  any 
species  of  Garni vora  occur  and  is  represented  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  quite  diverse  species.  The  common  characters  are  as 
follows:  Progression  plantigrade,  soles  naked  (except  in 
Ailurus),  toes  five  on  each  foot,  sometimes  more  or  less  webbed 
and  usually  large  curved  and  non-retractile  though  some  spe- 
cies have  more  or  less  retractile  claws.  The  body  is  usually 
clumsy  and  heavy,  though  there  are  exceptions  to  this.  All 
the  species  with  a  few  exceptions,  which  live  in  arctic  or 
treeless  regions,  climb  readily  and  some  spend  their  lives  in 
arboreal  habitats.  The  bears  as  a  group  are  omniverous  and 
the  teeth,  although  identical  in  number  with  those  of  the  Cani- 
dce,  are  remarkable  for  their  adaptation  to  an  omniverous  diet.  * 

There  are,  however,  a  few  in  this  family,  like  the  Ursus  mar- 
inns,    or  polar  bear,   which  live  exclusively  upon  flesh  and 

*(Baird  unaccountably  says— on  page  206  of  the  Report  of  the  Northern  Pacific  R. 
R.,  Mammals— "The  teeth  are  the  same  In  number  with  the  Canidaa,  although  their 
more  carnivorous  character  is  shown  by  the  turberculated  molars."  Perhaps  the 
word  carnivorous  is  a  misprint  for  omniverous,  for  neither  the  habits  of  the  animal 
nor  ordinary  analogy  substantiate  the  statement  as  it  stands.) 


136  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

others  which  are  nearly  confined  to  a  vegetable  diet,  interme- 
diate conditions  linking  these  extremes. 

There  are  from  forty-two  to  thirty-six  teeth  and  two  molars 
are  always  present  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  while  in  Ursus 
a  third  molar  is  found  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  crowns  of  the 
molars  are  tuberculate,  the  prominences  in  some  cases  being 
high  and  sharp,  but  in  true  bears  are  low  and  the  crown  is  also 
marked  by  various  wrinkles  and  elevations.  These  teeth  are 
in  many  respects  not  unlike  the  molars  of  swine.  There  are 
normally  four  pre-molars  in  each  jaw  as  in  Ursus,  Ailuropus, 
Procyon,  Nasua  and  Bassaris.  In  Ailurus  there  are  but  three 
in  the  upper  jaw,  while  a  like  reduction  is  also  found  in  the 
lower  jaw  of  Arctictis  and  Cercolepies. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  number  of  pre-molars  with 
age.  In  the  true  bears  these  teeth  are  reduced  in  size  and 
have  conical  crowns,  while  the  smaller  members  of  the  family 
have  sharp  triangular  middle  lobes.  The  incisors  and  canines 
have  the  form  common  to  Carnivora  and  are  often  of  great  size. 

The  nearest  relatives  now  living  are  the  Civet  cats  which 
some  of  the  smaller  forms  greatly  resemble.  The  plantigrade 
walk,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  marked  peculiarity  of  bears, 
is  also  found  among  certain  Viverridce,  while  there  are  a  few 
of  the  Ursidce  which  have  retractile  claws. 

The  two  sub -families  are  well  marked  and  distinct  groups. 
The  Subursince  include  the  long-tailed,  small-bodied  forms, 
almost  confined  to  America.  The  number  of  teeth  is  never 
more  than  forty  (except  in  the  aberrant  ^Eluropus. ) 

The  Ur since,  include,  besides  Ursus  proper,  several  species 
of  tropical  bears. 

The  Prochilus  labiatus  inhabits  Ceylon  and  India  and  is  char- 
acterized by  its  long,  flat  head,  overhanging  lips  and  protrusi- 
ble  snout  and  the  long,  curved  claws.  It  is  arboreal  and  lives 
largely  upon  honey. 

A  still  better  climber  is  the  sun  bear,  which  inhabits  the 
Sunda  Islands,  etc. ,  and  is  vegetarian  in  habit  and  is  particu- 
larly partial  to  the  cocoanut. 

SUBFAMILY  SUBUKSIN^E. 

This  group  is  composed  of  several  genera  of  small  animals 
represented  in  North  America  by  the  raccoons  or  lavatory 
bears.  The  genera  are  more  strictly  localized  than  in  the 
larger  division  of  the  Ursidce,  but  as  a  whole  the  group  is 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  137 

widely  distributed.  The  characteristics  of  the  Subursince  differ 
from  those  of  the  typical  ursine  particularly  in  a  reduction  of 
the  number  of  teeth.  Externally  the  appearance  is  rendered 
less  bear-like  by  the  presence  of  a  long,  hairy,  and  sometimes 
prehensile  tail.  The  true  bears  possess  42  teeth,  while  their 
smaller  relatives  have  36  -  40,  the  chief  variation  being  in  the 
molars  and  premolars.  The  Subursince  are  plantigrade,  and 
have  a  free  use  of  the  fore  feet,  most  species  using  them  with 
great  dexterity  in  feeding,  etc.  The  species  are  arboreal,  and 
chiefly  nocturnal,  and  bear  confinement  and  even  domestication 
well. 

These  like  other  ursine  animals  are  omnivorous.  Insects, 
birds,  and  especially  their  eggs,  are  particularly  relished, 
though  fruits,  roots  and  other  vegetable  food  is  not  declined. 
Some  species  exhibit  their  relation  with  the  familiar  Ursus 
by  a  penchant  for  honey. 

A  connection  with  the  cats  seems  to  be  offered  by  a  South 
American  animal,  the  Bassaris  asiuta,  which  has  been  classed 
with  the  Civet  cats  (Viverridce).  Indeed,  this  animal  has  been 
placed  in  that  group  by  some  authors.  Although  said  by  Vogt 
to  inhabit  Mexico,  Southern  California  and  Texas,  American 
authors  seem  not  to  have  noticed  its  occurrence  in  the  United 
States. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  link  between  the  small  bears  and 
Ursus  is  found  in  Ailuropus,  a  curious  bear-like  animal,  confined 
in  its  range  to  the  inaccessible  mountains  of  eastern  Thibet. 
This  animal  is  but  partially  plantigrade,  touching  the  ground 
with  but  part  of  the  sole.  In  size  it  approaches  the  true  bears, 
but  in  many  points  resembles  the  panda  (Ailurus  fulgens), 
which  is  described  as  a  pretty  arboreal  and  frugivorous  animal, 
35  centimeters  long.  The  panda  inhabits  the  Himalayas  above 
6,000  feet.  The  cat-like  head  with  its  ruffled  cheeks,  the  fine 
reddish  fur,  and  the  long  tail,  make  it  a  striking  animal.  Its 
food  is  chiefly  fruit. 

Curiously  enough  we  encounter  another  representative  of  the 
group  in  the  Sunda  Islands  in  the  Arctictis  binturong.  The 
dog-like  head,  lynx-like  ears  and  monkey-like  tail  make  a 
strange  combination,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  outline  sketch 
(see  Fig.  9  [3]).  The  claws  are  not  retractile,  but  the  food 
largely  consists  of  flesh.  The  tail  is  used  for  prehension.  The 
nearest  relative  to  this  creature  must  be  sought  in  South 
America  where  we  find  the  Cercoleptes,  in  which  the  tail  is  used 

"9 


138 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


almost  as  freely  as  in  the  American  monkeys  (Fig.  9  [2]). 
This  animal  is  described  as  most  affectionate  and  confiding  in 
confinement.  Like  the  raccoon  it  is  very  "handy"  in  the  use 
of  its  fore  feet. 


FIG.  9. 

1.  Nasua  rufa— South  American  Coati. 

2.  Cercoleptes  caudivolvulus— South   Ameri- 

can Kinkajou. 
Arctictis  binturong. 


Still  another  South  American  animal  may  be  mentioned  to 
show  the  connection  between  the  above  and  the  raccoons,  to 
the  consideration  of  which  these  remarks  are  introductory.  The 
coati  (Nasua)  (Fig.  9  [1]),  are  much  less  tractable  and  pleas- 
ing pets.  They  are  described  as  the  vagabonds  of  their  native 
land  which  includes  all  South  and  part  of  North  America.  They 
climb  and  run  with  equal  ease  and  are  as  much  at  home  when 
rooting  with  their  long  snout  in  the  earth  as  when  ransacking 
the  nest  of  an  unfortunate  bird.  The  males  seclude  themselves 
save  in  the  breeding  season.  The  dentition  of  the  coati  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  the  raccoons. 


GENUS  PROCYON  (RACCOONS.) 

As  lack  of  material  prevents  from  offering  any  comparisons 
with  related  genera,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  description 
of  our  only  species  for  points  in  the  anatomy  diagnostic  of  this 
genus. 

The  dental  formula  for  the  genus  is  as  follows: 


3-3       1-1 

i.  — ,  c.  — , 

3—3       1-1 


4-4        2—2 

p  m. ,  m. =  40. 

4-4        2-2 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  139 

The  variation  in  the  number  of  molars  and  premolars  in  re- 
lated genera  is  as  follows: 

4-4        2-2 

Ailuropus  :   p  m.  — ,  m.  — ,  -  42. 
4-4        3-3 

3-3        2-2  \ 

Ailurus:   p  m.  — ,  m.  —  =  38. 

4-4        2-2 

o Q         o 2 

Arctictis.Cercoleptes:  p  m.  — ,  m.  —  =  36. 

3-3        2-2 

4-4        2-2 

Procyon,  Nasua,  J3assans:  p  m.  — ,  m.  —  =  40. 

The  Ursince  agree  with  the  Ailuropus  in  the  number  of  teeth. 

The  head  is  broad  and  depressed,  the  muzzle  being  pointed 
and  the  nose  produced.  The  ears  are  moderate,  rounded,  not 
pointed  above.  The  feet  are  all  five-toed  and  the  toes  are  dis- 
tinct. The  impression  made  by  the  hind  foot  when  the  heel  is 
applied  to  the  ground,  as  is  not  always  done  in  walking,  is  al- 
most exactly  like  that  of  a  human  infant.  There  are  no  pads 
or  callosities.  The  tail  is  longer  than  one-half  the  body  and 
covered  with  long  hairs.  The  Raccoons  always  have  dark 
marks  about  the  face,  and  bands  encircling  the  tail.  The  three 
known  species  are  confined  to  America;  they  are  P.  lotor,  in- 
habiting the  Eastern  United  States  westward  to  Texas,  Wyo- 
ming, etc. ;  P.  hernandezii,  occupying  the  western  coast  of  the 
United  States,  Mexico  and  Central  America;  and  P.  cancrivorus 
from  South  America.  Other  species  have  been  described,  but 
seem  not  to  be  valid.  The  three  species  are  so  similar  that  the 
anatomical  characters  of  P.  lotor  may  be  considered  of  generic 
application. 

Procyon  lotor  LINN. 

RACCOON. 

i 

Ursus  lotor,  older  writers. 

Procyon  lotor,  STORR  and  later  authors. 

About  the  size  and  nearly  the  general  color  of  the  badger. 
Head  broad  and  depressed,  the  muzzle  being  acute;  ears  large, 
rounded  above,  hairy.  General  color  grayish  white  or  yellow- 
ish brown.  An  oblique  dark  patch  on  the  cheeks.  Tail  bushy 
with  four  or  five  dark  rings.  Entire  length  over  thirty-two 
inches,  the  tail  being  one -third. 

Generally  distributed  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

The  raccoon  ranges  over  the  entire  wooded  parts  of  our 
state  and  is  well  known  for  its  depredations  upon  the  farmer 


140  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

and  the  poultryman.  The  habits  are  tolerably  well  known. 
It  is  instructive  to  watch  the  Procyon  in  confinement,  which  is 
readily  endured,  for  the  amiable  and  inquisitive  pet  exhibits 
many  of  his  native  characteristics.  There  is  something  quite 
human  in  the  way  the  claws  are  used,  although  the  expression 
of  the  face  and  many  of  the  attitudes  and  motions  are  quite 
bear-like.  In  fact  there  is  a  curious  combination  of  the  ludi- 
crous clumsiness  of  a  bear  with  a  deftness  and  sprightliness 
peculiarly  its  own.  Even  when  chained,  the  fore  feet  are  kept 
constantly  in  motion  examining  automatically  every  inequality 
of  the  ground  and  every  crevice.  A  rat  hole  or  the  like  is  al- 


FIG.  10.— The  Raccoon  at  Bay. 

ways  an  attractive  field  for  study.  If  permitted  to  approach 
the  person  he  scrambles  freely  over  one  and  searches  every 
pocket  and  hem.  A  bit  of  cake  or  candy  thus  found  is  eagerly 
devoured  and  the  search  at  once  renewed.  If  furnished  water 
all  food  is  carefully  washed,  and  in  its  absence  it  is  carefully 
rubbed.  The  positions  assumed  in  this  process  are  frequently 
comical  in  the  extreme.  If  a  fragment  is  accidentally  dropped 
the  feet  distinguish  it  from  the  pebbles  on  the  bottom  at 
once.  When  searching  for  a  lost  morsel  with  its  feet  one 
scarcely  escapes  the  impression  that  the  animal  is  blind,  which 
delusion  is  hightened  by  the  opaque  appearance  of  the  pupil 
in  many  lights.  On  the  other  hand,  the  truth  is  that  the  eyes 
are  busily  engaged  in  following  our  motions,  and  the  animal 
relies  on  the  tactile  sense  entirely  in  handling  its  food.  At 
other  times  when  provided  with  food  it  seats  itself  gravely  or 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


141 


leans  against  an  adjacent  tree  and,  holding  the  food  between 
the  hind  paws,  helps  himself  with  the  hands  in  a  most  busi- 
ness-like manner.  A  decided  preference  is  shown  for  sweet 
food  and  corn  bread  is  much  preferred  to  wheaten.  Potatoes 
when  cooked  are  eaten  with  reluctance,  but  are  skillfully 
pealed  and  broken  into  morsels  without  the  assistance  of  the 
teeth.  Green  corn  is  disposed  of  with  an  instinctive  and  ac- 
complished ease.  Eggs  are  devoured  with  an  eagerness  ap- 
proaching excitement.  A  slight  crack  is  made  with  the  teeth 
which  is  enlarged  at  one  point  with  the  claws  and  the  contents 
lapped  up  as  they  exude.  A  boiled  egg  is  a  conundrum  not 
readily  solved  and  only  understood  when  the  yelk  is  reached. 
A  pet  raccoon  was  chained  in  my  doorway  for  weeks  till  the 
neighboring  chickens  lost  all  fear  of  the  intruder  and  partook 
freely  of  the  crumbs  which  fell  from  his  table.  Only  after 


FIG.  11.— The  Raccoon  at  Dinner. 


142  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

this  state  of  confidence  was  reached  did  he  make  any  dem- 
onstration, and  then  continual  depredations  attested  the 
cunning  of  the  quadruped.  Curiously  enough,  birds  were 
freely  eaten,  but  small  rodents  were  utterly  refused,  so  that 
we  must  conclude  that  these  latter  do  not  enter  the  regular 
diet  of  the  animal  in  a  wild  state.  Our  raccoon  passed  much 
of  its  time  in  "jumping  rope"  with  its  hind  feet,  while  its 
chain  was  kept  taut  by  the  neck. 

The  raccoon  is  hunted  on  account  both  of  its  flesh  and  its 
pelt,  the  latter  being  used  considerably  in  the  manufacture  of 
robes  and  coats,  and  occasionally,  especially  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts, for  other  purposes.  It  is  neither  very  durable  nor  at- 
tractive, however,  and  would  hardly  lead  to  the  persecution 
which  attends  the  animal  were  it  not  that  its  depredations  upon 
the  corn  fields  and  the  poultry  house  add  the  motives  of  re- 
venge and  self-protection  to  the  more  sportsman-like.  The 
flesh  is  not  despised  by  many,  though  the  omnivorous,  and  es- 
pecially the  insectivorous  habits  of  the  animal  render  it 
specially  subject  to  internal  parasites  in  spite  of  the  most  re 
markable  precautions  which  either  experience  or  natural  taste 
has  developed  in  its  eating  habits.  An  instance  was  seen 
where  the  body  of  a  raccoon  which  had  been  exposed  in  the 
market  with  other  meats,  was  literally  filled  with  worms  of  the 
genus  Filaria  several  inches  long,  and  these  filled  with  living 
embryos  in  all  stages  of  development. 

The  hunting  of  raccoons  is  a  favorite  amusement  of  farmers' 
boys,  and  as  it  is  carried  on  at  night  with  the  aid  of  dogs, 
torches  and  axes,  seems  to  be  replete  with  an  excitement 
hardly  commensurate  with  the  value  of  the  prize.  This  sport 
has  a  peculiar  fascination  for  the  Southern  negro,  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  a  night's  'coon  hunt  served  to  mitigate  the  weariness 
and  sadness  of  a  life  of  servitude. 

The  writer  had  on  one  occasion  the  opportunity  of  assisting 
in  such  an  enterprise.  It  was  in  Northern  Alabama,  and  the 
ostensible  object  of  the  hunt  was  an  opossum  which,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  the  visitor  was  anxious  to  secure. 

At  about  nine  o'clock  a  party  of  boys  and  dogs,  which  con- 
stantly increased,  sallied  forth,  animated  by  the  occasional 
blasts  of  an  old  horn,  this  instrument  being  necessary  to  prop- 
erly control  the  proceedings  of  a  multitude  of  mongrel  curs, 
each  of  which  excelled  in  some  subtlety  of  'possum  or  'coon  lore 
any  dog  in  the  county.  Lights  were  brandished  and  with  a 
shout  as  heterogeneous  as  the  company  from  which  it  pro- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  143 

ceeded  we  plunged  into  a  swampy  and  tangled  woodland,  to  the 
writer,  at  least,  of  unknown  extent.  The  baying  or  rather 
'yelping  of  the  dogs  in  various  directions  kept  us  informed  that 
"Tige"  and  "Zep,"  etc.,  were  at  their  work.  Suddenly  the 
conclave  of  hunters  assembled  violently  excited.  "Zep  hab 
struck  fresh  'coon  trail,  shore,"  said  one.  "Go  way,  dar, 
Sandy,"  was  the  reply,  "dat  dog  never  let  on  datarway  cep'en 
he's  found  'possum  tracks."  In  a  sage  discussion,  involving 
the  theory  and  practice  of  dog-education,  the  time  was  occupied 
until  we  had  all  assembled  about  the  base  of  a  tall  tree  which 
seemed  the  object  of  the  most  excited  interest  of  the  mongrel 
called  "Zep."  Our  lights  brilliantly  illuminated  the  base  and 
lower  branches  which,  however,  cast  deep  and  deceptive 
shadows  upon  the  spire  of  the  noble  tree.  Boys  and  dogs  were 
equally  excited,  and  there  were  proposed  and  instantly  rejected 
a  variety  of  expedients  for  dislodging  -the  unknown  animal 
which  the  'possum  dog  hazarded  his  reputation  in  affirming 
still  lay  concealed  among  the  boughs.  The  other  dogs  now 
came  up,  and  some  immediately  caught  the  infection  and  added 
their  strangely  modulated  cries  to  the  din.  One,  however, 
sniffed  wisely  at  the  scent  and,  shaking  his  head  sadly,  s  talked 
off  to  a  small  sapling,  large  enough  to  support  nothing  heavier 
than  a  squirrel,  and  set  up  a  lively  opposition,  gazing  into  the 
bare  top  of  the  sapling  with  well-feigned  admiration,  tearing 
the  ground  and  rending  the  air  with  his  deep  cries.  This  sage 
conduct  was  the  source  of  deep  gratification  to  his  owner,  who 
'  ;knowed  from  the  first  thar  wan't  no  'possum  in  that  thar 
gum. "  But  at  last  it  was  decided  that  an  athletic  youth  should 
scale  the  tree  with  a  gun  upon  his  back  and  beard  the  animal 
in  his  retreat.  A  period  of  breathless  silence  followed  by  a 
deafening  report  ensued.  Something  struck  the  ground  with  a 
heavy  thud  and  the  dogs  rushed  up  to  gaze  upon— the  hero 
who  had  fired  and  brought  himself,  but  not  his  game,  to  the 
ground.  He  reported,  however,  a  most  mammoth  opossum 
clinging  to  the  upper  boughs.  Candidates  for  new  honors  were 
few,  but  additional  inducements  sent  another  sable  youth  up 
the  tree,  and  we  were  rewarded  by  a  flash  followed  by  a  suc- 
cession of  snarls  and  spits  as  a  heavy  animal  crashed  earthward 
and  landed  in  the  midst  of  the  group  of  furious  dogs.  Then 
ensued  a  scene  more  easy  to  imagine  than  to  describe.  Dogs 
and  boys  all  eager  to  beat  and  tear  the  life  out  of  the  poor  ani- 
mal which  seemed  at  first  likely  to  vanquish  the  former  if  left 
to  themselves.  When  the  dogs  had  been  beaten  off  the  leader 


144  BULLETIN    NO.    VII. 

held  up  a  full  grown  raccoon  which,  even  added  to  the  excite- 
ment of  the  chase,  hardly  mitigated  the  disappointment  in  the 
failure  to  secure  an  Alabama  opossum. 

Description  of  a  specimen  of  raccoon  taken  Aug.  27,  1884:  This 
animal  while  young,  was  evidently  over  a  year  old.  It  throve 
and  grew  well  and  became  a  great  favorite  by  its  amiability  and 
eccentricity. 

The  moult  was  in  progress  or  rather  nearly  completed  at 
this  time.  The  old  hair  comes  out  in  bunches,  (i.  e.  the  under 
fur),  and  was  replaced  by  a  darker  shade.  The  fur  was,  of 
course  far  from  being  as  full,  long  and  strikingly  colored  as  in 
winter. 

The  colors  are  as  follows:  Base  of  fur  light  sepia  brown  or 
a  somewhat  warmer  tint.  This  ground  color  affects  the  exter- 
nal appearance  little,  except  below  where  it  is  less  completely 
obscured  by  the  terminal  part  of  the  hairs.  It  does,  however, 
tone  down  the  external  coloration  everywhere.  The  general 
grey  of  the  body  is  produced  by  the  color  of  the  longer  and 
coarser  hairs  which  have  a  median  portion  of  white  or  light, 
but  impure  olivacious  yellow  and  a  longer  or  shorter  terminal 
portion  of  dark  brown  or  black.  The  chief  difference  between 
a  winter  and  summer  pelage  is  produced  by  the  greater  length 
of  the  dark  terminal  portion  in  the  former.  Underneath  the 
terminal  band  is  lacking  and  the  color,  except  on  the  throat,  is 
pure  white  upon  the  plumbeous  or  brown  color  of  the  under 
fur.  Above  the  middle  band  of  the  hairs  is  distinctly  yellow- 
ish and  along  the  back  the  black  tips  are  conspicuous  and  in 
winter  give  the  appearance  of  a  dark  median  stripe  or  band. 

Upon  the  head  are  distinct  markings  consisting  of  the  fol- 
lowing dark  areas  on  a  white  ground.  A  median  band  of  yellow- 
ish brown  beginning  on  the  nose  and  becoming  blackish  be- 
tween the  eyes,  terminating  upon  the  forehead,  and  a  band  li 
inches  wide  crossing  the  cheeks  diagonally  and  including  the  eye. 
The  top  of  the  head  partakes  of  the  color  of  the  back,  but  the 
base  of  the  ears  and  an  irregular  spot  behind  them  is  dark.  A 
dark  band  nearly  meets  the  facial  one  below  upon  the  throat. 
The  ears  are  white-tipped.  No  other  marking  occurs  except 
upon  the  tail  where  the  yellowish  cast  is  more  pronounced  and 
the  lighter  color  is  broken  by  rings  or  annulations  of  black. 
In  this  case  there  are  six  rings  aside  from  the  terminal  pencil 
of  black  hairs.  A  more  or  less  distinct  garter  of  black  or 
brown  marks  the  hinder  leg.  The  exposed  part  of  the  skin  is 
black;  elsewhere  it  is  white. 


MAMMALS  OF   MINNESOTA.  145 

There  are  three  pairs  of  mammas,  the  posterior  pair  being 
near  the  thighs,  the  second  3  inches  in  advance,  and  the  pector- 
al pair  yet  4  inches  beyond. 

Measurements:  Length  of  body  22-J-  inches,  tail  10,  end  of 
nose  to  incisors  f,  end  of  nose  to  eye  2TV,  end  of  nose  to  ear 
opening  4f,  night  of  ear  from  inside  2T9^,  elbow  to  longest  claw 
7-J,  palm  3^,  thumb  1,  middle  finger  If,  sole  of  hind  foot  4f . 

GENUS  URSUS. 

The  clumsy  beasts  constituting  this  genus  are  sufficiently 
well-known  to  require  no  general  description.  As  a  group  it  is 
sharply  defined  although  much  diversity  of  opinion  exists  as  to 
the  value  of  the  remaining  divisions  of  the  sub-family.  The 
members  of  the  genus  Ursus  are  chiefly  northern  in  distribu- 
tion. One  species  (U.  ornatus),  occurs  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  South  America.  The  polar  bear  is  circumpolar  and  differs 
considerably  in  habits  a.nd  anatomy  from  more  southern  species. 
The  northern  parts  of  Europe  are,  or  were,  inhabited  by  num- 
erous varieties  of  the  single  species  U.  arctos.  This  brown 
bear  is  larger  than  our  species  and  in  some  respects  like  the 
grizzly  of  the  west.  Carl  Vogt's  description  of  the  young  of  this 
species  applies  equally  to  ours: 

"Little  bears  are  very  amiable  and  in  the  highest  degree 
comical.  Clowns  in  every  respect,  unwieldly  yet  nimble,  al- 
ways ready  for  play  or  sport,  sociable  with  every  one,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  teachable,  they  nevertheless  evince  an  egotis 
tic  independence  which  later  becomes  a  sullen  habit.  The 
mother  cares  for  them  with  unlimited  devotion;  for  weeks  she 
does  not  leave  them  a  moment,  and  remains  without  food  in 
the  secluded  recess  chosen  for  their  reception.  She  teaches 
them  to  walk,  to  climb  and  to  swim  and  defends  them  with 
courage  and  to  the  last.  Although  the  mother  covers  them 
with  caresses,  coddles  them  warmly  and  endures  well  pleased 
their  teasing,  still  she  does  not  neglect  punishment,  which  when 
needed  is  applied  in  the  form  of  sundry  slaps  and  ear-boxing, 
and  even  slight  bites  of  which  she  is  not  sparing.  It  is  even 
said  that  bears  of  two  or  three  years  old  assist  in  training  their 
younger  brothers  and  sisters." 

In  the  United  States  at  least  two  species  and  numerous  vari- 
eties of  bear  are  known,  and  it  would  be  presumption  to  at- 
tempt to  discuss  the  value  of  the  various  specific  distinctions 
assumed  by  various  authors  upon  the  basis  of  the  slight  mater- 
ial at  the  disposal  of  this  survey. 


146  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

For  details  concerning  the  anatomy  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  description  of  the  black  bear  beyond.  Great  variations  are 
found  in  different  individuals  of  the  same  species. 

Ursus   americanus  PALLAS. 

THE  BLACK  BEAR. 

The  black  bear  is  still  quite  common  in  Minnesota;  every 
year  a  number  are  exposed  in  the  markets  of  Minneapolis.  So 
far  as  observed  these  are  nearly  all  of  the  normal  black  variety. 

Mr.  Allen  remarks:  "Contrary  to  what  was  formerly  sup 
posed,  bears  everywhere  appear  to  be  among  the  most  variable 
of  mammiferous  animals,  not  only  in  coloration,  but  in  size, 
proportions,  and  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull  and  other  parts 
of  the  skeleton.  Those  familiar  with  them  say  it  is  rare  to  find 
any  two  alike.  I  am  informed  by  my  friend  Mr.  C.  W.  Bennett 
that  he  has  known  two  cubs  of  the  same  litter,  taken  in  one  of 
the  western  states,  that  as  they  grew  up,  differed  very  mater- 
ially, from  each  other  in  color,  one  being  black  and  the  other 
brown.  They  differed  widely  also  in  form  and  disposition,  one 
being  docile  and  playful,  while  the  other  was  ferocious  and 
dangerous.  The  leading  varieties  in  color  of  the  American  and 
European  bears,  as  the  brown  and  black  bears,  are  now  gener- 
ally deemed  to  be  but  varieties  and '  not  species.  The  bears 
have  ever  been  a  perplexing  group,  and  accordingly  the  opin- 
ions advanced  by  different  authors  respecting  the  number  of 
species  vary  widely.  Several  high  authorities  consider  the 
land  bears  of  northern  North  America,  northern  Asia  and  Europe 
as  forming  but  one,  or  at  most  two,  species,  among  which  (au- 
thorities) are  Blainville  and  Middendorff,  the  latter  of  whom, 
with  access  to  a  large  amount  of  material,  has  especially  and 
most  minutely  investigated  the  subject. 

Dr.  Gray  recognizes  eight  with  numerous  varieties  and  sub- 
varieties  of  each. 

There  is  a  strong  tendency  among  naturalists  to  consider  old 
world  bears  as  all  distinct  from  those  of  North  America,  and  at 
least  to  recognize  two  species  of  the  latter — the  grizzly  bear  of 
the  west  and  the  continentally  dispersed  black  and  brown  bears. 
Prof.  Baird  gives  the  probable  number  as  five,  four  of  which 
he  seems  to  consider  well  founded.  But  each  of  the  recognized 
species  presents  so  many  varieties,  which  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  intergrade,  that  well-marked  lines  of  distinction  cannot 
at  present  be  drawn." 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  147 

Perhaps  it  is  not  at  present  allowable  to  claim  with  much  as- 
surance the  existence  of  more  than  a  single  very  variable  spe- 
cies and  a  number  of  rather  indefinite  sub-species. 

The  distinguishing  characters  are  osteological  or  external, 
and  the  two  sets  by  no  means  vary  coetaneously. 

During  the  winter  of  1880-81,  some  twenty  black  bears  were 
brought  into  Little  Falls,  Morrison  Co.,  their  skins  being 
worth  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  (Upham). 

A  cinnamon  bear  is  said  to  have  been  killed  near  Watab  in 
1884. 

Although  so  clumsy  in  appearance,  the  black  bear  is  pos- 
sessed of  great  strength  and,  especially,  remarkable  endurance. 
As  the  largest  beast  of  prey  found  in  our  state,  it  exacts  an  al- 
lowance of  respect,  not  to  say  fear,  hardly  commensurate  to 
its  peaceable  and  ease- loving  disposition.  At  the  time  of  the 
early  explorations  in  Minnesota,  bears  appear  to  have  been 
numerous  and  very  frequently  seen.  The  Indian,  very 
naturally  with  his  less  effective  weapons,  found  the  bear  a 
more  formidable  enemy  than  the  European  hunter,  and  this 
may  account  for  the  part  the  bear  plays  in  Indian  mythology 
and  legendary  lore.  The  habits  vary  with  the  time  and  place 
greatly  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  is  supplemented  by  con- 
siderable adroitness  which  Indian  belief  and  hunters'  imagin- 
ation have  exaggerated  to  a  high  degree  of  cunning.  The  deft- 
ness with  which  the  anterior  extremities  are  used  always  gives 
us  the  impression  of  the  human  skill  which  accompanies  such 
motions  in  man,  so  that  we  tend  to  exaggerate  the  mental 
powers  of  such  animals  as  have  the  power  of  pronation,  etc., 
and  to  underestimate  the  intelligence  which  is  restricted  to 
other  ways  of  expression.  There  is  but  one  bear  which  is  en- 
tirely carnivorous,  the  Ursus  arctos,  and  in  this  case  necessity 
is  the  evident  cause  of  the  departure  from  the  otherwise  uni- 
versal omnivorous  habit. 

In  summer  the  black  bear  rarely  or  never  seeks  animal  food, 
although  it  is  by  no  means  refused  if  at  hand.  In  spring  and 
summer  the  moist,  shady  borders  of  pools  and  rivers  afford 
both  suitable  food  and  covert,  while  impenetrable  swamps  and 
wet  woods  furnish  secure  retreats  during  the  heat  of  mid-sum- 
mer. Succulent  roots  and  almost  any  vegetable  materials  are 
appropriated,  while  crawfish,  and  perhaps  other  small  animals, 
are  said  to  supplement  this  diet.  Nettles  and  even  the  Indian 
turnip  (Arumtriphyllum)  are  delicacies  in  the  cuisine  of  our 
Bruin.  In  late  summer  the  various  berries  growing  in  '  'open- 


148  BULLETIN   NO   VII. 

ings"  and  upland  prairies  allure  the  bear  from  his  seclusion. 
Raspberries  are  especially  esteemed  and  low  cherry  trees  are 
broken  down  and  the  small  berries  greedily  eaten.  Like  the 
raccoon,  the  bear  sometimes  makes  inroads  upon  the  corn-fields 
breaking  down  and  otherwise  destroying  much  more  than  is 
eaten  or  carried  away  Later  in  the  season  grapes,  acorns  and 
various  nuts  are  eaten.  In  the  east  and  south  bears  were  not 
infrequently  encountered  while  breaking  off  the  boughs  of  nut- 
bearing  trees  or  "lopping"'  as  it  is,  in  some  sections,  termed. 

During  the  winter,  especially  at  the  north,  animal  food  of  a 
necessity  supplants,  to  a  considerable  extent  at  least,  all  other, 
and  it  is  then  that  depredations  upon  the  barn-yard  may  be  ex- 
pected. Pigs,  calves  and  even  larger  animals  are  carried  away. 
It  is  stated  that  on  the  coast  bears  frequently  feed  largely 
upon  fish.  Bruin  certainly  is  not  afraid  of  water  and  swims 
easily  and  is  no  mean  antagonist  to  a  party  of  boatmen.  The 
venturesome  boat  that  approaches  too  near  is  frequently  cap- 
sized by  the  heavy  beast.  During  the  frightful  forest  fires 
which  prevail  at  the  north  it  is  not  unusual  for  men  who  fly  to 
mid-stream  for  refuge  from  the  terrible  heat  to  be  beseiged  by 
a  bear,  which  craves  only  the  privilege  of  resting  upon  the 
boat,  but  who  is  not  safely  to  be  allowed  that  demand.  The 
craving  for  sweets  is  a  well  known  characteristic  of  all  bears. 
The  natural  supply  is  furnished  by  the  nests  of  the  humble -bee, 
or  the  stores  which  wild  bees  lay  away  in  hollows  of  trees.  A 
"bee-tree"  is  very  adroitly  emptied  by  Bruin,  who  cares  little 
for  the  stings  and  angry  buzzing  of  the  proprietors. 

The  lumbering  gait  of  the  bear  is  deceptive  ;  he  really  is 
capable  of  a  high  degree  of  speed,  and  avails  himself  of  flight 
when  attacked  by  man,  unless  wounded  or  deprived  of  the 
young.  Unlike  the  grizzly  bear,  our  species  climbs  volun- 
tarily, and  very  generally  betakes  itself  to  a  tree  when  har- 
rassed  by  dogs.  In  other  cases,  or  if  close  hauled,  he  rises 
upon  his  hind  feet,  placing  his  back  against  any  convenient 
object,  and  assumes  the  defensive  ;  in  which  case  dogs  and  men 
do  well  to  carry  on  warfare  at  a  distance.  The  quality  in  a  dog 
most  to  be  desired  is  not  courage,  for  no  number  of  dogs  are  a 
match  for  a  bear. 

Our  animal  is  a  great  lover  of  ease,  and  spends  much  of  its 
time  in  warm  weather  in  wallowing  in  the  mud  or  sleeping  in 
a  retired  haunt.  In  the  far  north  bears  hibernate  during  much 
of  the  winter,  which  they  are  said  to  pass  in  the  mild  pleasure 
of  licking  their  paws.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  great  amount  of 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  149 

nutriment  is  derived  from  this  amusement,  either  for  mind  or 
body.  The  winter  habitation  is  selected  not  only  for  its 
warmth,  but  for  its  seclusion,  for  during  this  period  the  great- 
est danger  threatens  the  animal,  and  the  hunter  is  constantly 
on  the  lookout  for  one  of  these  dens,  which  may  be  detected  by 
frost  (caused  by  the  breath)  about  the  opening  in  the  snows 
which  bury  the  cavity.  An  upturned  tree  in  clayey  soil  fre- 
quently forms  a  retreat  just  suited  for  the  winter  resort  of  the 
bear,  who  excavates  a  recess  in  the  sheltered  cave  formed  by 
the  up  torn  roots. 

The  sexes  associate  in  the  autumn,  and  one  to  four  young  are 
born  after  a  period  of  six  or  seven  weeks — say  in  January, 
(more  exactly.  120  days.)  Four  years  are  required  to  reach 
maturity.  Like  almost  all  animals  residing  in  the  colder 
parts  of  America,  bears  are  migratory  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  migrations  are  probably  hardly  noticeable  in  our 
limits.  Many  country  people  believe  in  the  existence  of  an- 
other species  of  bear  known  as  ''The  Ranger",  which,  like  the 
man-eating  tiger,  is  blood-thirsty,  and  always  gaunt  and  hun- 
gry. This  form  should  be  distinguishable  by  a  star  or  crescent 
in  the  breast,  and  does  not  hibernate. 

The  young  of  Bruin  often  fall  a  prey  to  the  fox  or  fisher. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  winter  habits  of  bears  the  following 
extract  from  an  article  in  the  "Century  Magazine"  of  March, 
1882,  by  Chas.  C.  Ward,  is  here  reproduced.  "Stimulated  by 
the  large  price  offered  by  the  officers  of  a  garrison,  an  Indian 
was  indefatigable  in  his  endeavors  to  find  a  den.  One  day  ac- 
companied by  his  little  son,  a  boy  of  ten,  he  discovered  unmis- 
takable traces  of  a  bear's  den,  near  the  top  of  a  hill  strewn 
with  granite  bowlders,  and  almostim  passable  from  the  number 
of  fallen  pines.  One  old  pine  had  fallen  up  hill,  and  its  up- 
reared  roots,  with  the  soil  clinging  to  them,  formed,  with  a 
very  large  rock,  a  triangular  space  into  which  snow  had  drifted 
to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  The  Indian  was  about  to  pass 
on  when  he  detected  the  whining  of  bear  cubs.  By  making  a 
detour,  he  reached  a  place  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the 
bowlder,  and  there  saw  tracks  of  an  old  bear,  leading  directly 
into  the  centre  of  the  space  between  the  tree  root  and  the 
bowlder.  The  old  bear,  in  her  comings  and  goings,  had  tun- 
neled a  passage  under  the  snow  drift.  Getting  down  on  his 
hands  and  knees,  the  Indian,  with  his  knife  held  between  his 
teeth,  crept  bear- fashion  into  the  tunnel.  After  entering  sev- 
eral feet  he  found  the  usual  bear  device — a  path  branching  off 


150  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

in  two  directions.  While  pondering  what  to  do  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, a  warning  cry  came  from  his  little  son,  who  was 
perched  upon  the  top  of  the  bowlder,  and  the  next  instant  the 
old  bear  rushed  into  the  tunnel,  and  came  into  violent  con- 
tact with  the  Indian,  the  shock  causing  the  tunnel  to  cave  in. 
The  Indian,  after  dealing  the  bear  one  blow,  lost  his  knife  in 
the  snow,  and  seized  the  bear  with  his  hands;  but  she  proved 
too  strong  for  him,  and  was  the  first  to  struggle  out  of  the 
drift,  when,  unfortunately,  she  met  the  little  Indian  boy,  who 
had  climbed  down  to  come  to  his  father's  rescue.  He  received 
a  tremendous  blow  on  the  thigh  from  the  bear's  paw  as  she 
passed,  which  crippled  him  for  life." 

Among  the  native  superstitions  worthy  of  mention  are  the  feel- 
ings of  supernatural  reverence  with  which  the  bear  is  regarded 
by  the  red  man.  Solemn  and  curious  ceremonies  are  necessary 
to  appease  the  spirit  of  the  slain  hero.  The  severed  head  is  placed 
in  a  conspicuous  position  and  is  decorated  with  charms  and  or- 
naments of  all  sorts,  and  a  formal  speech  is  made  in  which, 
graced  by  all  manner  of  compliments,  the  bear's  pardon  is  asked 
for  the  rude  method  by  which  his  life  was  sacrificed,  and  the 
hunter  deferentially  trusts  the  excuses  offered  may  be  accepted 
by  the  animal  and  his  gens.  After  this,  tobacco  smoke  is 
blown  into  the  nostrils  and  the  celebration  takes  on  a  more 
practical  character. 

Nor  is  this  respect  peculiar  to  Indian  tribes.  The  northern 
races  of  Europe  have  like  superstitions. 

During  the  pairing  season,  the  males  congregate  in  troops 
and  scour  the  forest,  growling,  snarling,  and  fighting.  On 
such  occasions  all  prudent  hunters  avoid  an  encounter  with 
them. 


CHAPTER  V. 


ORDER  RODENTIA. 


THE  GNAWERS. 

The  Rodents  are  easily  recognized  by  many  points  of  general 
similarity,  notwithstanding  the  diversity  in  appearance  and 
variation  in  habitat.  The  order  is  the  largest  among  mammals. 
The  number  of  genera,  and  especially  of  species  is  enormous, 
and  the  geographical  distribution  is  similarly  extended. 

While  usually  of  small  size,  the  animals  of  this  order  are  by 
no  means  insignificant ;  some,  like  the  beaver,  affording  a  val- 
uable fur,  while  others,  as  the  hare,  are  prized  for  the  food  or 
sport  furnished  ;  and  still  others  rank  among  the  depredators 
on  human  stores,  and  are  therefore  universally  detested.  The 
largest  rodent,  the  capybara,  is  not  larger  than  a  small  hog. 
All  rodents  are  plantigrade,  applying  the  whole  sole  to  the 
ground,  and  find  their  food  within  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  toes  are  movable  and  generally  clawed. 


152  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Rodents  agree  in  lacking,  even  in  the  milk  dentition,  canine 
teeth — a  very  important  and  constant  character.  The  incisors 
are  rootless  and  grow  during  the  life  of  the  animal.  They  form 
segments  of  a  circle,  the  upper  being  the  smaller  circle.  The 
outer  surface  only  is  provided  with  enamel,  thus  providing 
for  automatic  sharpening  by  mutual  attrition.  It  is  interesting 
to  notice  a  curious  adaptation  for  the  use  of  these  chisel- shaped 
teeth  in  squirrels,  for  instance.  The  symphysis,  or  line  of 
union  of  the  two  lower  jaws,  is  cartilaginous  only,  permitting 
the  play  of  the  jaws  laterally.  By  this  means  the  teeth  when 
inserted  in  the  nut  or  acorn  shell,  are  pried  apart,  splitting  the 
shell  with  ease. 

The  incisors  are  frequently  ornamented  with  ridges  or  cor- 
rugations. The  number  of  molars  is  not  large,  never  more 
than  six  or  less  than  two  in  one  ramus.  The  number  of  true 
molars  is  three,  and  these  were  not  preceded  by  milk  teeth 
as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  premolars.  The  molars  are  some- 
times rootless,  and  at  others  have  well  defined  crown  and  roots* 
but  the  distinctions  based  on  this  circumstance  are  of  subordi- 
nate worth.  These  two  kinds  of  molars  are  found  in  closely 
related  families,  for  instance  among  mice.  The  variations  in 
the  internal  structure  are  so  great  as  to  make  general  state- 
ments of  little  value.  The  skull  is  generally  elongate  with 
well- developed  premaxillse.  The  orbits  are  not  shut  off  from 
the  temporal  fossae.  The  interparietal  is  well  developed. 
There  is  a  ninth  bone  in  the  carpus.  The  clavicles  are  present 
in  the  arboreal  and  fossorial  groups,  but  absent  in  others. 
The  brain  surface  is  smooth,  and  the  cerebrum  extends  but 
slightly  backward.  The  digestive  tract  conforms  to  the 
herbiverous  habits  of  the  animals,  a  large  caacum  being  found 
in  all  but  the  dormice. 

The  nails,  though  generally  claw-like,  are  occasionally  mod- 
ified to  closely  resemble  hoofs  ;  in  some  cases,  also,  the  bones 
of  the  leg  are  elongated  and  the  mid-foot  bones  form  a  kind  of 
cannon-bone,  adapting  the  possessor  to  a  saltatorial  life,  and 
indicating  that  the  ungulates  are  not  so  completely  distinct 
from  the  claw-bearing  animals  as  sometimes  suggested.  The 
rodents  are  extraordinarily  fertile,  and  reproduce  with  incred- 
ible rapidity,  even  though  exposed  to  constant  inroads  from 
beasts  and  birds  of  prey.  The  great  fecundity  becomes  in 
some  cases  the  occasion  of  distress,  and  forced  migrations, 
forming  an  interesting  parallel  with  human  history.  The 
lemming  of  northern  Europe  has  repeatedly  sent  southward 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  153 

hordes  of  emigrants,  which,  in  spite  of  the  normally  nocturnal 
habits  of  the  animal,  pressed  on  in  a  solid  phalanx,  harried  on 
all  sides  by  hawks  and  wolves,  crossing  rivers  and  facing  death 
in  a  hundred  forms,  driven  by  the  fiat  of  necessity,  and  thus 
demonstrating  the  Malthusian  principle  as  applied  at  least  to 
mice.  The  rodents  attain  the  maximum  development  in  South 
America.  Thirty -two  of  the  thirty -seven  genera  are  restricted 
to  that  continent.  The  hares  and  squirrels  constitute  the  most 
universally  distributed  families.  Africa,  similarly,  is  rich  in 
endemic  forms,  while  even  the  island  of  Madagascar  has  its 
peculiar  rodent  fauna.  The  distribution  in  the  circumpolar 
continent  is  more  general  and  presents  fewer  exceptional  fea- 
tures. Eleven  or  so  of  the  twenty-four  North  American  genera 
are  peculiar  to  this  continent,  and  most  of  the  restrictions  and 
limitations  are  such  as  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  land.  The  mice  are  found  in  all  continents,  even 
Australia  having  representatives.  The  hares  and  squirrels  are 
found  on  all  other  continents,  and  are  rather  close  families. 
East  India  is  poorest  in  rodents,  and  for  no  obvious  reason,  so 
that  we  are  forced  to  seek  the  explanation  of  this  and  other 
anomalies  in  the  historical  development  of  the  order.  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus  Myoxus,  and  the  squirrels  have  been 
found  among  Eocene  fossils  in  Europe,  and  the  genera  continue 
to  the  present  time.  The  Eocene  of  Wyoming  affords  remains 
of  Paramys  and  Sciuravus,  and  in  the  upper  Eocene  the  mar- 
mot-like Plesiarctomys. 

Other  species  very  imperfectly  known  are  referred  to  unchar- 
acterized  genera,  as  Colonymys,  Taxymys,  Tillomys,  Mysops, 
Heliscomys,  etc.  Enough,  at  least  is  known  to  indicate  a 
numerous  line  of  successors  to  the  early  Eocene  rodents  and  to 
convince  us  that  the  various  families  were  early  differentiated. 
Mice,  squirrels  and  porcupines  have  existed  since  the  Eocene — 
that  period  so  marvelously  productive  of  new  mammalia. 
The  Miocene  was  the  period  of  greatest  development  of  the 
type,  and  it  is  claimed  that  at  that  time  some  genera  now 
restricted  to  the  Americas  roamed  over  Europe.  The  numer- 
ous recent  discoveries  of  paleontology  leave  us  quite  in  doubt 
as  to  the  primitive  source  of  the  rodent  type,  beyond  the  vague 
suggestion  that  the  earliest  rodent  was  probably  a  marsupial — 
a  convenient  way  of  dissembling  sheer  ignorance. 

It  would  be  interesting  did  our  limits  permit  to  compare 
the  curious  extremes  of  structure  and  variations  in  habit  exhib- 

-10 


154  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

ited  by  the  rodent  tribes.  From  the  flying  squirrels  of  West 
Africa,  as  large  as  a  cat,  to  our  own  diminutive  Sciuropterus 
volucella,  from  the  blind  mole  of  the  Cape  to  our  pouched 
gopher,  from  the  springing  mice  of  the  Sahara  to  our  shy 
Zapus  hudsonius,  there  is  variety  enough  to  interest  the  most 
fastidious. 

Rodents  are  divided  into  two  suborders  upon  the  structure  of 
the  teeth.  The  first,  SIMPLICIDENTATI,  includes  the  three 
series,  Sciuromorpha,  Myomorpha,  and  Histricomorpha,  inclu- 
ding respectively  animals  with  resemblance  and  affinity  to  the 
squirrel,  mouse  and  porcupine. 

The  second  suborder,  DUPLICIDENTATI,  includes  the  hares 
and  picas. 

FAMILY   SCIURIDCE. 

SQUIRRELS. 

This  family  includes  a  variety  of  animals  varying  greatly  in 
structure,  but  unmistakably  related.  Even  the  flying  squirrels 
do  not  differ  so  essentialy  from  the  prairie  dog  or  woodchuck 
that  the  affinity  can  not  easily  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Active  and 
rather  social  and  pleasing  animals,  for  the  most  part,  but  num- 
bering some  petty  raiders  among  them,  we  shall  not  be  likely 
to  neglect  the  Sciuridce. 

The  Sciuromorpha  have  perfect  clavicles,  nearly  free  forearm 
bones,  small  incisive  foramina,  large  and  distinct  malar.  The 
nasal  pad  is  small  and  the  upper  lip  cleft.  In  the  Sciuridce  post- 
orbital  processes  are  present  and  the  molars  are  provided  with 
tuberculed  crowns.  Dental  formula  :  i  \ :-}-;  pm.  f  :|-  m.  f  :f.  The 
number  of  premolars  often  varies  in  the  same  genus,  there 
being  in  many  cases  but  one  on  a  side  above.  The  tail  is  hairy 
and  generally  bushy,  the  feet  well  clawed.  Habits  fossorial, 
scansorial,  or  partly  volant.  Considerable  variation  obtains  in 
the  configuration  and  minor  details  of  the  skull  and  skeleton, 
as  will  be  seen.  Eight  genera  are  recognized,  six  of  which 
occur  in  our  district. 

The  squirrels  constitute  the  genus  Sciurus,  standing  at  the 
head,  while  the  rear  is  brought  up  by  the  more  primitive  type 
represented  by  Arctomys,  the  woodchuck.  The  two  genera  not 
found  in  America  are  Pteromys  and  Xerus,  found  in  India  and 
Africa  respectively,  the  latter  being  in  some  respects  like  the 
porcupine. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  155 

GENUS  SCIURUS,  LINN. 

Aside  from  obvious  differences  in  habits,  the  true  squirrels 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  chipmunks  and  gophers  by  the 
broad  head  and  curved  dorsal  outline  of  the  skull.  Skull  short, 
broad,  cranial  portion  expanded,  facial  portion  rather  broad  ; 
malar  bone  nearly  vertically  expanded ;  post- orbital  process 
produced  and  slender ;  first  premolar,  if  present,  very  small. 
Pelage  full,  tail  full  and  bushy,  back  never  striped,  no  cheek 
pouches.  It  is  unnecessary  to  speak  of  the  characteristics  of 
so  familiar  an  animal.  Every  one  whose  boyhood  brought  him 
within  the  influence  of  Nature  at  all  must  remember  more  than 
one  escapade  in  which  this  furry  tree-farer  played  an  important 
part. 

Some  fourteen  species  occur  in  America,  some  of  which  are 
very  closely  allied.  Our  own  state  has  but  three  species. 
Central  America  seems  to  be  the  focus  of  the  genus  on  this 
continent,  and  here  the  species  are  not  only  the  most  numerous 
and  variable  but  the  largest  as  well.  Toward  the  north  and 
south  the  size  diminishes,  and  a  tendency  is  observed  to  depart 
from  the  typical  characters  of  the  genus.  The  tail  especially  is 
reduced. 

The  following  table  copied  from  Allen's  monograph  will  be 
found  useful: 

SYNOPSIS   OF   NORTH  AMERICAN   SCIURI. 

I.  Tail  very  short  and  narrow,  the  caudal  vertebrse  alone 
about  two- thirds  as  long  as  head  and  body;  tail  to  end  of  hairs 
about  one-seventh  shorter  than  the  head  and  body;  premolars 
-f,  the  first  very  small  and  often  deciduous;  a  narrow,  black, 
lateral  line;  size  small. 

1.  Above  greyish,  mixed  with  yellowish  or  reddish,  annu- 
lated  with  dusky,  often  with  a  strong  wash  of  ferruginous 
along  the  middle  of  the  back;  below  generally  white,  some- 
times narrowly  annulated  with  black;  in  one  sub-species  fulvous 
below.  Hob.  Northern  half  of  North  America.  S.  hudsonius. 

I  a).  Above  varied  with  black  and  yellowish-rusty;  upper 
surface  of  tail  with  hairs  gray  at  the  base  and  tips,  with  a 
broad  subterminal  bar  of  black.  Hob.  Central  portion  of  Rocky 
Mountains  and  thence  westward  to  Sierra  Nevadas. 

var.  fremonti. 

(b).  Above  dusky,  strongly  varied  with  reddish;  upper 
surface  of  tail  with  the  hairs  dark  reddish  brown  at  the  base, 


156  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

tipped  with  reddish,  and  a  very  broad  subterminal  band  of 
black,  sometimes  occupying  the  whole  of  the  terminal  third- 
Hob.  Rocky  Mountains  between  latitude  43C  and  52",  and  thence 
westward  to  the  Cascade  Range.  var.  richardsoni. 

(c. )  Much  as  above,  tail  with  less  black,  more  or  less  tinged 
with  fulvous  or  rufous  below.  Hob.  Pacific  Coast  region  from 
Northern  California  to  Sitka,  var.  douglassi. 

II.  Tail- vertebras  about  four- fifths  the  length  of  head  and 
body;  tail,  with  hairs,  rather  longer  than  the  body,  generally 
full  and  bushy.     Premolars  f  ({).     Size  large  or  medium. 

A.  Premolars  f 

2.  Above  whitish- gray,  varied  with  fulvous;  beneath  white; 
middle  of  back  more  or  less  brownish;  indistinct  fulvous  lateral 
line;    ears  never  conspicuously   tufted.     Hob.     U.   S.   east  of 
plains,  Canada  to  Guatemala.  8.  carolinensis. 

Variety  leucotis  is  the  familiar  form  with  the  body  longer 
than  ten  inches.  The  type  of  the  species  is  smaller  and  inhab- 
its the  South  Atlantic  states,  while  variety  yucatanensis  is  still 
smaller  and  has  no  rufous  suffusions. 

3.  Above  dark  bluish-grey,  a  dorsal  band  of  bright  chestnut; 
a  distinct  black  lateral  line;  no  fulvous  suffusions;  below  white;, 
ears  very  large,   tufted,  frequently  melanistic.     Hob.    Rocky 
Mountains  of  Colorado  and  Arizona.  S.  alberti. 

B.  Premolars  }. 

4.  Color  above  generally  some  shade  of  grey,  but  extremely 
variable;   rusty  and  melanistic  phases  prevalent;    size  large; 
tail  broad  and  bushy.    Hdb.  E.  U.  S.  to  the  plains.     S.  niger. 

(a).  Length  13  inches;  nose  and  ears  white;  below  gener- 
ally fulvous  or  rufous;  dusky  phases  frequent.  Hob.  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  states.  var.  niger. 

(b).  Smaller;  nose  and  ears  not  white.  Hob.  North  Atlantic 
states.  var.  cinereus. 

(c).  Above  dusky  grey,  strongly  suffused  with  rufous;  ears, 
feet  and  ventral  surface  fulvous,  varying  to  rufous;  occasion- 
ally dusky  or  black  beneath.  Hob.  Mississippi  basin. 

var.  ludovicianus. 

III.  Tail- vertebrae  alone  equal  to  length  of  head  and  body ; 
size  large;  premolars    f. 

5.  Above  dark,  pure  grey,  beneath  white;  tail  black,  washed 
with  white.     Hal).  Pacific  Coast  west  of  Coast  Range. 

8.  fossor. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  157 

Sciurus  hudsonius  PALLAS. 

CHICKAREE. 

This  pleasant  but  spiteful  little  squirrel,  which  is  the  most 
common  member  of  the  genus  in  Minnesota,  is  found  abund- 
antly wherever  trees  afford  it  the  necessary  conditions.  It  is 
not  found  upon  the  prairies  but  follows  the  sparsely  timbered 
river  valleys,  even  to  Big  Stone  lake,  though  rarely.  Its  merry 
chir-r-r-r-r  is  the  first  greeting  to  the  traveler,  along  the  open- 
ings bordering  the  "Big  Woods,"  and  it  is  frequent  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  state.  It  measures  6. 00-7. 50  to  the  root  of 
the  tail  which  is  6-7;  head  about  2;  ear  1.50.  Color,  above 
grayish  fulvous  with  a  broad  dorsal  band  of  red.  Under  parts 
white  or  grey.  The  tail  is  colored  as  the  back  but  its  long 
hairs  have  a  black  band  and  yellowish  tips.  The  upper  sur- 
faces of  the  feet  vary  with  the  seasons  and  age,  being  either  of 
the  same  color  as  the  back  or  of  a  golden  orange,  often  parti- 
colored during  the  moult.  The  black  lateral  line  seems  also  to 
be  a  seasonable  character.  The  ears  are  blackish  and  have 
small  pencils  in  winter.  The  feet  are  furry  below  in  winter. 
The  northern  regions  furnish  larger  specimens  than  farther 
south.  In  Minnesota  the  coloration  and  to  some  extent  the  size 
is  very  variable  and  would  appear  not  to  afford  any  indication 
of  geographical  variation. 

The  chickaree  is  strictly  arboreal  and  does  not  hybernate. 
Its  food  normally  consists  of  nuts  and  grains,  but  it  delights  to 
vary  this  diet  with  animal  food  occasionally  and  commits  depre- 
dations upon  the  nests  of  various  birds  eating  the  young  birds 
with  a  relish.  It  is  thought  by  woodsmen  that  this  active  squir- 
rel drives  out  the  gray  squirrel  or  harrasses  it  until  it  is  glad 
to  leave  the  territory  claimed  by  it.  The  winter  store  is  said 
to  be  collected  in  several  places  rather  than  in  a  single  store- 
house, as  in  the  case  of  the  chipmunk.  Like  the  larger  spe- 
cies, the  red  squirrel  collects  leaves  and  grass  in  the  branches 
forming  a  nest  for  protection  against  cold  during  severe 
weather. 

The  young  are  cared  for  in  hollow  trees  until  able  to  care 
for  themselves. 

Sciurus  carolinensis,  var.  leucotis  GAPPER. 

GRAY  OR  BLACK  SQUIRREL. 

The  gray  squirrel  is  locally  rather  abundant  in  Minnesota,  and 
is  gaining  rather  than  loosing  as  settlement  continues.  Color, 


158  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

clear  whitish-gray,  with  a  dorsal  area  of  yellowish-brown. 
Under  parts  white;  sometimes  jet  black,  with  all  intermediate 
phases.  Hairs  of  the  tail  white-tipped,  with  a  subterminal 
band  of  black,  and  black  ampliations  upon  the  brownish  basal 
portion.  Lower  parts  rarely  suffused  with  rufous.  Ears  gen 
erally  with  a  tuft  of  white  behind  at  the  base,  not  penciled. 
Length,  10.50;  tail,  11.50;  tail  vertebrae,  8;  fore  foot,  1.75;  hind 
foot,  2. 50.  As  a  rule  the  males  seem  to  be  larger,  but  perhaps 
there  is  no  sexual  variation.  The  top  of  the  head  is  generally 
clear,  dark-gray,  while  often  there  is  a  lateral  yellowish  line. 

It  is  curious  that  the  melanistic  phases  seem  to  be  local  and 
confined  to  narrow  limits. 

The  southern  variety  of  this  species  is  considerably  smaller 
and  decidedly  less  white.  The  two  varieties  pass  into  each 
other.  Variety  leucotis  extends  throughout  the  northern  United 
States  and  southern  Canada  westward  to  the  eastern  border  of 

the  plains,  and  southward  to  the  isotherm  of  56°  F. 

• 

Sciurus  niger  LINN. 

FOX  SQUIKREL. 

PLATE  VIII.* 

The  varietal  distinctions  set  up  for  the  various  phases  of  this 
species  are  of  very  unimportant  nature.  Our  specimens  are  all 
of  the  variety  ludovicianus.  Length  of  body,  11-14;  tail,  to  end  of 
vertebrae,  8 . 50 — 10 . 50.  Above  gray,  with  much  suif used  rufous 
or  sienna  red  ;  ears,  feet  and  lower  parts  rusty  red,  varied  with 
more  or  less  dusky.  The  under  surface  is  sometimes  nearly 
black.  Specimens  from  the  far  west  are  paler,  those  from  the 
south  more  reddish  below.  The  variety  ludovicianus  is  confined 
to  the  area  drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries. 

The  gray  squirrel  seems  more  common  in  most  parts  of  the 
state,  but  the  distribution  is  remarkably  capricious. 

GENUS  SCIUROPTERUS,  F.  Cuv. 

The  flying  squirrels  are  represented  in  North  America  by 
but  a  single  species  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
and  subject  to  great  geographical  variation. 

The  skull  is  short,  broad,  and  strongly  curved,  orbits  large, 
interorbital  region  constricted,  pterygoid  processes  slender, 

*The  plate  is  intended  as  an  illustration  of  the  adaptability  of  native  animals  to 
decorative  art.  The  present  case  being  a  tile  in  which  conventionalization  is  intro- 
duced into  the  accessories  simply  in  order  to  highten  contrasts  otherwise  too  slight  to 
be  available  for  such  purposes. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  159 

pre molars  two.  Fore  limb  with  a  catilaginous  spur  from  the 
carpus  to  which  is  attached  the  volar  fascia  passing  like  the 
string  of  a  shur  through  the  hairy  fold  of  skin  serving  for  flight. 
Fur  very  soft,  tail  with  distichous  pelage,  ears  large,  eyes  very 
large. 

( My  notes  on  this  genus  having  been  lost  only  a  brief  ac 
count  of  the  common  species  is  now  possible.) 

Sciuropterus  volucella  PALL. 

(Plate  VII.) 

This  beautiful  species  is  extremely  variable.  The  eastern 
United  States  is  inhabited  by  the  variety  volucella  which  rarely 
exceeds  5| inches  in  length  of  body,  the  tail  being  somewhat  less. 
The  color  is  a  soft  yellowish  brown  above,  white  or  cream 
colored  below.  The  middle  of  the  back  and  especially  the  upper 
surface  of  the  tail  is  darker  than  the  remainder.  The  under 
pelage  is  plumbeous  or  black  and  this  frequently  appears  along 
the  edges  of  the  wings  and  the  terminal  portion  of  the  tail. 

The  species  is  dispersed  throughout  the  wooded  parts  of 
North  America  as  far  south  as  Central  America. 

In  Minnesota  it  is  extremely  local.  It  often  becomes  a 
familiar  visitor  in  the  door  yards  of  country  homes,  flitting 
from  tree  to  tree  at  dusk  and  taking  its  pay  by  constant  and 
ill-timed  forages  upon  the  corn-cribs.  Though  very  skillful 
the  little  animals  sometimes  overestimate  their  powers  and 
falling  short  are  precipitated  to  the  earth,  but  their  agility  is 
so  great  that  they  are  almost  instantly  in  their  place  in  the 
tree  tops.  When  captured  they  make  as  engaging  and  sprightly 
pets  as  could  be  expected  of  nocturnal  animals.  To  the  noc- 
turnal habit  may  be  attributed  the  comparative  constancy  of  the 
color  pattern  in  spite  of  variation  in  other  respects.  The 
rodents  which  are  exposed  to  diurnal  conditions  being,  on  the 
other  hand,  most  variable  in  this  particular. 

The  families  are  large  and  domestic,  but  little  is  known  of 
the  household  economy. 

GENUS  TAMIAS,  ILL. 

"Skull   narrowed   anteriorly;     post-orbital    process    long, 
very  slender,  directed  downward  and  backward;  plane  of  malar 
bone  more  oblique,  and  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  maxillary 
more  expanded  and  depressed  than  in  Sciurus,  but  rather  less  so 


160  BULLETIN   NO.    VII 

than  in  Spermophilus ;  ante  orbital  foramen  oval,  situated  in 
the  base  of  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  maxillary  ;  upper  pre 
molars  two  or  one  ;  when  two  are  present  the  first  is  generally 
minute  ;  ears  of  medium  size  or  small,  never  tufted ;  cheek 
pouches  large  ;  pollex  with  a  well-developed  nail ;  tail  shorter 
than  the  body,  flattened  and  rather  broad,  but  shorter  and 
narrower  than  in  Sciurus  ;  dorsal  surface  with  two  to  four  Ion 
gitudinal  whitish  stripes,  with  a  central  and  two  marginal  black 
stripes."  This  genus,  though  most  closely  allied  to  Spermophi- 
lus, links  that  genus  very  closely  to  the  arboreal  squirrels,  to 
which  some  species  bear  a  great  resemblance  in  habits.  The 
genus  is  apparently  of  North  American  origin,  though  one 
species  is  also  found  in  Northern  Asia  and  Europe.  Dr.  Mer- 
riam  describes  a  new  subspecies  as  T.  striatus  lysteri,  upon  a 
basis  which  it  seems  to  us  would  make  it  possible  to  create 
endless  named  varieties  of  the  more  widely  distributed  species, 
especially  if  the  seasonal  and  sexual  and  age  variations  are 
quite  neglected .  A  new  species  is  also  described  by  Dr.  Mer- 
riam,  from  California,  as  T.  m^crorhabdotes. 


Tamias  striatus  (LINN),  BAIRD. 

COMMON  CHIPMUNK. 

Length  of  body,  5.75;  tail,  to  end  of  vertebrae,  3.65;  to  end  of 
hairs,  4.25;  forefoot,  0.80;  hindfoot,  1.35.  Middle  of  back,  gray, 
rufous  on  the  rump, grizzly  brown  to  gray  on  head;  sides  yellow- 
ish, whole  lower  surf  ace  white;  tail  blackish  above,  hairs  white- 
tipped.  The  back  is  ornamented  by  five  narrow  black  stripes, 
the  two  lateral  ones  on  each  side  being  separated  by  white  lines 
more  or  less  buffy.  A  white  superciliary  line,  and  a  yellowish 
stripe  beneath  the  eye. 

As  bearing  on  the  habits  of  this  interesting  and  social  rodent 
the  following  account  is  quoted  from  a  sprightly  article  in  the 
American  Naturalist  by  Ira  Sayles:  (Am.  Nat.  vol.  iv,  p  249.) 

"I  lately  noticed  in  my  garden  a  bright- eyed  chipmunk, 
Tamias  striatus,  advancing  toward  me.  *  *  *  Here  he  paused 
a  moment 'and  gave  a  sharp  look  all  around  him,  as  if  to  detect 
any  lurking  spy  on  his  movements.  (His  distended  cheeks 
revealed  his  business;  he  had  been  out  foraging.)  He  now  put 
his  nose  to  the  ground  and,  aiding  this  member  with  both  fore 
paws,  thrust  his  head  and  shoulders  down  through  the  dry  leaves 
and  soft  muck,  half  burying  himself  in  an  instant. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA  161 

At  first  I  thought  him  after  the  bulb  of  an  Erythronium  that 
grew  near  *  *  *  Presently,  however,  he  became  compara- 
tively quiet.  In  this  state  he  remained,  possibly  half  a  minute. 
He  then  commenced  a  vigorous  action  as  if  digging  deeper; 
but  I  noticed  that  he  did  not  get  deeper;  on  the  contrary,  he 
was  gradually  backing  out.  I  was  surprised  that  in  all  his 
apparent  hard  work  (he  worked  like  a  man  on  a  wager)  he 
threw  back  no  dirt.  But  this  vigorous  labor  could  not  last  long. 
He  was  soon  completely  above  ground,  and  then  became  mani- 
fest the  object  of  his  earnest  work;  he  was  refilling  the  hole 
he  had  made  and  repacking  the  dirt  and  leaves  he  had  dis- 
turbed. Nor  was  he  content  with  refilling  and  repacking  the 
hole.  With  his  two  little  hand-like  feet  he  patted  the  surface, 
and  so  exactly  replaced  the  leaves  that,  when  he  had  completed 
his  task,  my  eye  could  detect  not  the  slightest  difference  be- 
tween the  surface  he  had  so  cunningly  manipulated  and  that 
surrounding  it.  *  *  *  It  was  now  my  turn  to  dig,  in  order 
to  discover  the  little  miser's  treasure.  I  gently  removed  enough 
of  the  leaves  and  fine  muck  to  expose  his  hoard — half  a  pint  of 
buttercup  seeds,  Ranunculus  acris.  I  took  out  a  dozen  seeds  or 
so,  recovered  tie  treasure  as  well  as  my  bungling  hands  could, 
and  withdrew  filled  with  astonishment  at  the  exhibition  of  cun- 
ning, skill  and  instinct  of  the  little  much  abused  denizen  of  our 
field  borders." 

The  chipmunk  often  appears  during  warm  days  in  mid  winter 
when  it,  in  Minnesota,  frequently  feeds  upon  the  bright  berries 
of  the  bitter-sweet  which  can  furnish  but  very  little  nourish- 
ment. 

It  is  amusing  to  observe  how  fear  often  takes  possession  of 
these  timid  animals.  When  pursued  by  a  dog  they  will  take 
refuge  in  some  low  tree  entirely  secure  from  their  enemy  who 
at  once  pursues  what  seems  the  most  preposterous  method, 
barking  and  tearing  the  earth  and  going  into  a  spasm  of  rage 
in  the  most  insane  fashion.  It  often  proves  effective  notwith- 
standing, for,  from  sheer  terror,  the  rodent  springs  wildly 
about  untillosing  its  foothold  it  falls  into  the  very  jaws  of  the 
dog. 


162 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


Tamias  asiaticus  (GMELIN)  ALLEN. 

Var.  qiiadrivittatus? 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  CHIPMUNK. 

PLATE   IX,   FIG.  21. 

T.  asiaticus  is  known  to  occur  in  the  state  from  well  authen- 
ticated skins  collected  by  T.  S.  Roberts  near  Duluth  and  from 
observations  made  by  Mr.  Upham  near  Red  Lake,  indicating 
that  the  species  ranges  nearly  entirely  across  the  state  to  a 
considerable  distance  south  of  the  boundary.  The  specimens 
of  Mr.  Roberts  are  not  now  before  me,  but  several  examples 
collected  by  myself  in  Canada,  along  the  north-eastern  shore 
of  Lake  Superior,  probably  are  identical.  Along  the  north 
shore  this  species  is  much  more  common  than  its  larger  rival 
and  conforms  with  great  satisfaction  to  the  conditions  of  exist- 
ence presented  by  the  rocky  soil  and  depauperated  vegetation. 
It  was  never  observed  to  climb,  though  carefully  watched, 
where  it  was  quite  abundant  and  fearless.  Several  individuals 
visited  our  store-tent  daily  and  gave  us  abundant  opportunity 
to  observe  the  activity  and  pert,  pretty  ways  in  whict  it  out- 
does the  familiar  species. 

The  following  table  presents  the  available  measurements,  all 
being  taken  from  animals  collected  at  Michipicoten  bay,  Lake 
Superior,  during  July  and  August: 


Length  of 

Lengtl 

i  of  tail 

Nose 

Right 

INO. 

body. 

To  hairs. 

To  vertebrae 

Hina  foot. 

Fore  foot. 

to  eye. 

of  ear. 

i.. 

2 

3.85 
4  00 

3.80 
4  30 

3.10 

1.15 
1  25 

0.55 
0  61 

0.45 
0  54 

0  60 

Fresh. 
Alcoh'l 

3 

3.90 

4  30 

1.25 

0.60 

0  54 

Alcoh'l 

4 

3.60 

4  00 

1.18 

0  f9 

0.50 

Alcoh'l 

5 

3.90 

4  00 

1.20 

0  60 

0  52 

Alcoh'l 

6 

4.10 

4.30 

1.23 

0.53 

Skin. 

These  measurements  are  below  the  average  of  T.  guadrivittatus 
but  the  bright  coloration  points  in  that  direction. 

The  characters  of  var.  quadrivittatus  are  given  as  follows: 
"Length  of  head  and  body,  4.50-5.00;  of  tail  to  end  of  vertebrae, 
about  3.50;  to  end  of  hairs,  about  4.50.  Pattern  of  coloration 
strictly  the  same  as  var.  borealis,  but  the  colors  brighter,  with 
much  more  rufous,  and  the  size  smaller.  Under  parts  sometimes 
faintly  tinged  with  fulvous.  The  black  dorsal  stripes  are  edged 
and  more  or  less  mixed  with  rufous;  the  light  stripes,  especially 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  163 

the  outer,  are  whiter,  varying  from  grayish- white  to  pure  white; 
the  sides  of  body,  especially  anteriorly,  are  brignt  reddish  fer- 
ruginous; the  tail  yellowish-rusty,  with  a  sub  terminal  border 
of  black  edged  with  yellowish."  The  habitat  assigned  to  this 
variety  is  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains from  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  to 
New  Mexico,  westward  to  Pacific  coast,  eastward  to  the  plains. 

It  is  quite  difficult  to  decide  to  which  of  the  nominal  varieties 
these  specimens  belong.  They  occur  in  the  range  of  borealis, 
have  the  colors  of  quadrivitattus  and  size  of  pallidus.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  very  likely  these  varieties  do  not  express  all  of 
the  tendencies  to  variation  which  seem  to  be  governed  by  the 
actually  existing  conditions  of  life  rather  than  to  express  the 
genetic  relations. 

The  osteology  of  the  Asiatic  chipmunk  would  be  of  value 
only  as  taken  together  with  a  description  of  the  entire  anatomy 
and  a  minute  comparison  with  other  species  of  the  genus,  with 
a  view  to  discover  what  relations  exist  between  these  closely 
allied  species.  A  few  measurements  may  prove  instructive,  as 
affording  a  means  of  comparison  with  T.  striatus. 

Skull— length,  1.25  (T; striatus,  1.60), width, 0.82  (0.97), nasals, 
0.38  (0.51),  incisors,  to  palate,  0.65  (0.85), between  molars,  0.20 
(0.24),  rames,  0.80  (1,10). 

Shoulderblade,  0.60  (0.80),  humerus,  0.70  (0.90),  ulna,  0.88 
(1.00),  longest  metacarpal,  0.20  (0.28),  pelvis,  0.85  (1.08),  femur, 
0.95(1.10),  tibia,  1.10  (1.21),  longest  metatarsal,  0.50  (0.54). 

These  figures  indicate  a  much  more  slender  skull  in  T.  stria- 
tus (1.46 — 1.64  being  the  width  to  length  ratios  approximately). 
This  is  largely  due  to  the  greater  facial  prolongation  of  the 
latter,  in  which  the  nasal  bone  is  contained  3.13  times  in  the 
length  of  the  skull,  while  in  the  smaller  species  it  is  3.28  times. 

The  humerus  is  shortest  proportionally  in  T.  asiaticus  (1.35 
and  1.22  being  the  proportions  between  humerus  and  femur  in 
the  two  species. )  Perhaps  the  shorter  humerus  may  be  corre- 
lated with  less  active  and  especially  less  arboreal  habits.  The 
T.  asiaticus  does  not  seem  to  burrow  as  extensively  as  our  chip- 
munk. The  greater  length  of  the  tail  is  as  obvious  in  the 
skeleton  as  in  the  flesh. 


GENUS  SPERMOPHILUS,  F.  Cuv. 

This  genus,  a  synopsis  of  which  is  given  beyond,  contains 
about  twenty  species  confined  to  the  northern  continents  of 


164  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

both  hemispheres.  The  spermophili  are  most  numerous  in  the 
temperate  and  north  temperate  regions,  and  are  essentially 
prairie  animals.  There  are  about  equal  numbers  in  America  and 
the  Asiatic-European  continent.  They  are  not  found  in  the 
eastern  portions  of  America;  nor  are  they  numerous  in  western 
Europe,  so  that  the  plains  of  Asia  may  be  taken  as  their  geo- 
graphical centre.  The  fossil  forms,  of  which  there  are  several, 
do  not  afford  conclusive  evidence  upon  the  origin  of  the  genus. 
Its  species  are  very  like  members  of  several  different  genera: 
Sciurus  (the  squirrels),  Tamias  (the  chipmunks),  Cynomys  (the 
prairie  dogs)  and  Arctomys  (the  woodchucks).  Different  species 
are  more  like  one  or  the  other  of  these  groups,  so  the  group  is 
rather  heterogeneous  and  consequently  difficult  to  diagnose. 
The  form  is  usually  slender;  the  tail  is  not  so  bushy  as  in  most 
squirrels,  and  its  hairs  are  usually  more  obviously  dichotomous 
in  their  arrangement  than  in  squirrels.  The  tail  is  of  variable 
length  but,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  is  short  and  stumpy.  The 
ears  are  never  tufted  as  in  most  squirrels,  but  may  be  quite 
large;  in  typical  forms,  however,  they  are  small  and  rounded. 
Like  Tamias,  the  gophers  have  well  developed  pockets  opening 
inside  the  mouth  and  operated  by  special  muscles.  There  may 
or  may  not  be  a  nail  upon  the  thumb. 

Aside  from  these  external  characters  there  are  some  osteo- 
logical  peculiarities.  There  are  always  two  premolars  i.  e., 
five  back  teeth;  the  zygoma  is  flattened  horizontally;  the  ante- 
orbital  foramen  is  triangular  instead  of  a  narrow  slit  and  is 
protected  by  a  spur  at  the  lower  outer  corner. 

The  genus  Tamias  in  habits  and  in  structure  forms  the  link 
between  the  gophers  and  squirrels,  and  the  line  of  demarkation 
between  the  former  is  purely  artificial.  The  genus  has  been 
divided  into  three  sections  or  subgenera,  and  before  passing  to 
the  list  of  species  we  may  quote  the  diagnoses  as  revised  by 
Allen,  to  whose  paper  in  the  Rodentia  of  North  America  the 
reader  is  referred  for  a  full  discussion  of  their  position. 

"Sub-genus OTOSPERMOPHILVS,  Brandt.  Ears  large,  high,  pointed  (larger 
and  more  pointed  than  in  some  species  of  Sciurus)]  tail  long, full  and 
broad,  with  the  hairs  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  the  length  of  the 
head  and  body;  general  form  of  the  skull,  and  the  dentition,  strongly 
Sciurine. 

Sub-genus  COLOBOTIS,  Brandt.  Ears  small,  sometimes  marginiform;  tail 
short,  flattened,  with  the  hairs  one-third  to  one-half  the  length  of 
the  body;  skull  short  and  broad,  the  zygomatic  arches  broad,  gener- 
ally greatly  widened  posteriorly;  dentition  heavy,  and  the  first 
upper  premolar  generally  large. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  165 

Sub-genus  ICTIDOMYS, Allen.  Ears  generally  small,sometimes  rudimentary; 
tail  long,  cylindrical,  or  narrow  and  flattened,  or  quite  broad,  with 
the  hairs  one-half  to  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  body;  skull  very 
long  and  narrow;  first  upper  premolar  usually  rather  small,  and  the 
dentition  not  heavy." 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  but  two  species,  S.  franklini  and 
S.  tridecemlineatus,  whose  range  brings  them  within  our  limits, 
although  specimens  of  one  of  the  varieties  of  S.  richardsoni 
might  possibly  cross  our  northwestern  boundary.  Both  the 
species  above  mentioned  may  be  found  in  suitable  localities 
throughout  the  state.  The  8.  franklini  is  less  fossorial,  and 
being  a  more  conspicuous  animal,  is  soon  destroyed  in  thickly 
settled  regions,  while  the  great  fertility  and  more  subterranean 
habits  of  the  leopard  gopher,  enable  it  to  hold  its  own  in  spite 
of  the  best  endeavors  of  the  farmer  and  the  army  of  boys  and 
dogs  who  pursue  it  in  the  vicinity  of  towns.  Their  curiosity 
being  the  one  failing  which  enables  boys  of  exceptional  pa- 
tience to  snare  them  at  the  openings  of  the  burrows  into  which 
they  have  been  seen  to  plunge. 

Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus  MITCHILL. 

PLATE  X. 

Sciurus  tridecemlineatus  MITCHILL,,    Med.  Repos.,  xxi,  1821;  DESMAREST,. 

Mamm.  ii,  1822. 
Arctomys  tridecemlineatus  HARLAN,  Fauna  Amer..   1825;    GODMAN,    Am. 

Nat.  Hist,  ii,  1826. 
Spermophilus  tridecemlineatus  AuDUBONand  BACHMAN,  Quad.  N.  A.,  i,  1849; 

HOY,  Pat.  Off.   Rep.  Agr.,    1853;     KENNICOTT,   ib.,  1856; 

BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857;    THOMAS,  Trans.  Ill  State  Agr. 

Soc.,  1860;    ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  1870. 
Spermophilus  tridecem.  var.  tridecemlineatus  ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat- 

Hist.,  1874;  Monographs  N.  A.  Rodentia:  1877. 
Arctomys  hoodi  SABINE,    Trans.  Linn.  Soc.,  1822;  Franklin's  Journal,  1823; 

FISCHER,    Synop.  Mam.   1829;    WAGNER,    Schreber's   Sau- 

gethiere. 

Arctomys  (Spermophilus)  hoodi  RICHARDSON,    Fauna  Boreali-Amer.,  1829. 
Spermophilus  hoodi  F.  CUVIER,    Suppl.  Buffon.  1831;  MAXIMILLIAN,  Reise 

N.  Amer.,  1839;  Archiv.  f.  Naturgesch. ,  1861.     WAGNER, 

Suppl.  Schreber's  Sauget.,   1843;  BRANDT,    Bull.   Physico- 

Math.  Cl.  Acad.  St.  Petersb.,   1844:   SCHINZ.    Syn.  Mam., 

1845;  GIEBEL,    Saugethiere,  1855. 

A  full-grown  female  measures  as  follows:  Head  and  body, 
7.25;  tail,  4.15;  total  length,  11.40;  hind  foot.  1.50;  fore  foot, 
0.85;  longest  fore  claw,  0.30;  nose  to  eye,0.80;  nose  to  ear,  1.50; 
nose  to  occiput,  2.0;  night  of  ear,  0.30;  longest  hairs  on  the 


166  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

tail,  1.0;  lower  incisors,  0.30;  claw  of  thumb,  0.10;  cheek  pouches, 
1.50  deep  from  incisor.  The  prevailing  color  is  pale  lemon 
yellow  with  almost  a  greenish  tinge,  this  is  everywhere  warmed 
with  suffusions  of  rusty  orange  so  that  at  a  distance  the  ground 
color  might  be  called  rusty  yellow;  about  the  lips,  throat  and 
eyes  the  color  is  nearly  white;  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is 
enlivened  with  bright  orange  anteriorly  and  chestnut  with  an 
admixture  of  dark  brown  posteriorly;  the  back  is  marked  with 
about  nine  broad  stripes  of  very  dark  brown  locally  suffused 
with  chestnut,  one  of  these  stripes  passing  down  the  middle  of 
the  back  beginning  upon  the  occiput  and  fusing  into  the  brighter 
colors  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail;  anteriorly  this  stripe  is 
divided  by  a  narrow  band  of  the  general  body  color, but  back  of 
the  shoulders  this  breaks  up  into  rather  regular  blotches  oc- 
cupying the  middle  of  the  dark  band;  the  two  dark  bands  on 
either  side  of  the  central  one  also  contain  rows  of  light  spots, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  dark  bands  are  narrower  and  un- 
spotted. The  appearance  thus  produced  is  that  of  a  dark 
dorsal  surface  broken  by  alternating  continuous  narrow,  light- 
colored  lines  and  rows  of  spots.  The  outer  side  of  the  hind 
legs  is  brindled  and  at  the  ankle  there  is  a  considerable  suffu- 
sion of  rufous.  The  tail  is  orange  or  chestnut  with  a  bar  of 
white  near  the  end  of  the  hairs,  the  longest  of  which  are  white 
tipped.  The  tail  is  scantily  hairy  and  the  hairs  are  dichotom- 
ously  arranged.  The  posterior  part  of  the  sole  is  hairy.  The 
vibrissse  are  black  and  the  longest  reach  to  the  ear.  The  ears 
are  covered  without  and  within  with  close  fur.  The  muffle  is 
very  small.  There  is  a  pale  depauperate  variety  (pallidus 
Allen)  occupying  the  prairies  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  parts 
of. Missouri  and  Arkansas.  The  species  ranges  from  the 
Saskatchawan  region  to  Texas  and  from  Ohio  to  Utah.  Minne- 
sota is  thus  the  peculiar  home  of  the  typical  form  and  thus 
deserves  the  name  "Gopher  State." 


Spermophilus  franklini  (SABINE)  LESSON. 

GRAY  GOPHER. 

Length,  9.50-10.50;  tail  to  end  of  vertebrae,  5.50-6.50;  to  end 
of  hairs,  6.50-8.50;  nose  to  eye,  0.95;  hind  foot,  2.00. 

General  color  brownish  yellow  above,  pied  everywhere  by 
the  black  of  the  base  of  the  hairs,  which  shows  in  wavy  lines 
so  as  to  produce  almost  a  marbled  appearance.  The  yellowish 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  167 

fades  out  anteriorly,  and  on  the  head  there  is  only  pure  black 
and  white,  mingled  to  form  a  clear  grey,  as  also  on  the  sides  of 
the  head.  There  is  a  conspicuous  white  ring  about  the  eye, 
which  is  separated  from  the  black  of  the  lids  by  an  inconspicu- 
ous yellowish  line;  a  little  yellowish  too  is  found  on  the  ears. 
The  end  of  the  nose  is  buffy.  The  sides  of  the  body  are  lighter 
than  the  back,  and  the  black  is  most  conspicuous  upon  the 
sides  of  the  hip  and  thigh.  The  outside  of  the  fore  leg  is  yel- 
lowish. The  yellowish  of  the  back  extends  some  distance  upon 
the  tail,  which,  however,  has  a  prevailingly  whitish  color,  the 
hairs  being  yellowish  white  at  the  base,  black  medianly  and 
for  a  considerable  distance  near  the  end  pure  white.  The  under 
parts,  inside  of  legs  and  part  of  cheeks  are  white.  Claws 
blackish,  teeth  white,  iris  dark  brown.  The  pelage  is  stiff  and 
nearly  destitute  of  under  fur,  that  of  the  tail  being  distichous 
and  abundant,  often  nearly  as  full  as  in  the  gray  squirrel,  which 
this  species  not  a  little  resembles.  There  are  well  developed 
cheek-pouches  provided  with  special  muscles.  Six  pairs  of 
teats  are  present.  The  ears  in  this  species  are  very  small. 

This  graceful  animal  was  at  one  time  fairly  abundant  through- 
out the  southern  part  of  Minnesota,  but  is  being  rapidly  extermin- 
ated by  civilization.  The  natural  home  is  about  the  edges  of 
copses  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  animal  to  take  refuge  in  a  low 
tree  or  close  thicket  rather  than  its  burrow.  Being  so  much 
more  conspicuous  and  less  fossorial  it  is  less  fitted  to  hold  its 
own  than  the  striped  gopher.  It  is  still  abundant  about  Big 
Stone  lake,  where  it  will  approach  the  traveler's  tent  fearlessly 
and  may  be  taken  by  the  hand  if  desired.  During  the  summer 
it  feeds  upon  wild  fruits,  sue.-  as  strawberries,  but  has  well- 
marked  carniverous  propensities  During  a  few  days'  encamp- 
ment on  Lake  Traverse  several  of  these  animals  became  so 
domestic  as  to  partake  freely  of  fish  from  our  taible  so  long  as 
no  suspiciously  hasty  motions  were  executed  by  the  human 
participants.  The  following  are  typical  measurements  for  this 
region : 

No.  86.  (Female)  Head  and  body,  9. 75;  tail  to  end  of  vertebrae, 
5.50;  to  end  of  hairs,  6.70;  nose  to  eye,  0  95;  nose  toear,  1.80; 
hight  of  ear,  0.50;  fore  foot, .1.20;  hind  foot,  2.10;  upper  in- 
cisors, 0.25;  lower  incisors,  0.41. 

In  his  monograph  of  the  squirrels,  Mr.  Allen  mentions  that 
the  gray  gopher,  Spermophilus  franklini,  was  introduced  in 
Tuckerton,  New  Jersey,  in  1867;  where  it  has  gone  on  multiply- 


168  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

ing  ever  since,  as  Mr.  Jillson  kindly  informs  me.  Mr.  Jillson 
writes  under  date  of  May  18th,  1885:  "They  are  not  numerous 
enough  yet  to  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  crops,  but  if  a  pair 
takes  up  its  abode  near  small  chickens  or  turkeys,  they  soon 
thin  them  out.  When  not  frightened  into  their  holes  they  gen 
erally  plug  them  up  with  dirt,  but  always  leave  them  open 
when  out."  This  latter  habit  has  not  been  noticed  by  any 
other  observer,  and  is  not  shared  in  by  the  striped  gopher  ;  in 
fact  it  may  be  that  this  habit  is  one  result  of  their  more 
exposed  habitat. 

GENUS  ARCTOMYS,  (LiNN.)  SCHREBER. 

'  •  Skull  with  the  dorsal  outline  nearly  straight ;  frontal 
region  flat  or  depressed  ;  postorbitals  triangular  at  base,  with 
a  long  decurved  point ;  zygomatic  arches  moderately  expanded, 
not  widening  and  diverging  posteriorly  ;  grinding  teeth  rather 
small,  the  transverse  and  an tero- posterior  diameters  about 
equal,  and  the  molar  series  very  nearly  parallel ;  occipital  and 
interparietal  crests  well  developed  ;  anteorbital  foramina  sub- 
triangular,  widest  below,  but  not  thrown  outward. 

"Size  large;  body  thick- set,  broad,  depressed;  cheek - 
pouches  small ;  tail  rather  short,  bushy  not  flattened  ;  ears 
small ;  nail  of  pollex  broad,  flat,  or  wanting  ;  pelage  consisting 
of  long  coarse  hairs  and  thick  under  fur.  Coloration  generally 
yellowish  gray  or  brownish,  without  either  distinct  spots  or 
stripes."  The  woodchucks  are  magnified  Spermophiles  with 
some  of  the  characters  intensified,  but  seem  to  be  an  older  and 
more  synthetic  type — perhaps  the  most  central  living  group  of 
the  Sciuridce. 

Three  closely  allied  species  are  recognized  from  America, 
A.  monax  from  the  eastern  United  States  north  to  Hudson's 
Bay,  A.  flaviventer,  from  the  Rockies,  A.  pruinosus,  from  Alaska 
and  northwestern  America.  The  last  is  very  close  to  the  Old 
World  form  A.  marmota,  which  is  at  home  in  the  Alps,  Pyre- 
nees and  Carpathians.  A  small  species,  A.  bobac,  occurs  in 
Siberia  and  Russia. 

Arctomys  monax  (LiNN)  SCHREBER. 
WOODCHUCK. 

Length,  13.50 — 15.50;  tail  to  end  of  vertebrae  4.50;  to  end  of 
hairs,  6.75;  hind  foot,  3.00;  fore  foot  2.30;  nose  to  eye  1.50. 

Color,  a  mixture  of  gray,  fulvous  and  brown,  below  brown  to 
rufous.  Top  of  head,  feet  and  tail  dark  brown  to  black;  sides 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  169 

of  head  and  and  threat  yellowish,  chin  and  nose  gray.  Below, 
especially  about  the  fore  legs,  with  much  rusty  red.  Ears 
rounded,  rather  large.  Tail  short,  bushy,  terete.  Colors  vary 
greatly,  with  noticeable  tendency  to  melanism.  A  patch  of 
white  marks  the  lower  lip  and  a  more  or  less  distinct  bar  of 
gray  crosses  the  muzzle.  There  is  a  curious  callosity  just 
above  the  short  upper  incisors.  The  sole  has  six  callosities,  the 
palm  five.  There  are  two  pairs  of  pectoral  and  one  of  in 
guinal  teats  separated  by  an  interval  of  five  inches. 

The  woodchuck  may  be  somewhat  widely  distributed  in  Min- 
nesota but  the  only  localities  at  which  is  has  been  encountered 
are  upon  the  tributaries  of  the  St.  Louis  and  the  shores  of  lake 
Superior.  Here  it  does  not  appear  to  attain  the  size  of  the 
eastern  specimens  and  perhaps  is  more  brightly  colored, 
though  observations  are  lacking  to  support  this  statement. 
The  habits  are  exactly  those  of  the  Spermophiles  including  the 
curiosity  which  makes  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  trapper. 

An  adult  Ohio  female  measures  as  follows:  Length,  14.50; 
tail  to  end  of  hairs.  9.50;  fore  foot,  2.50;  hind  foot,  3.00;  nose 
to  eye,  1.80;  nose  to  ear,  3.70;  hight  of  ear,  1.00;  width  of 
muzzle,  1.15;  distance  between  eyes,  1.90. 

FAMILY  CASTOKID^E. 

This  family  is  placed  among  the  Sciuromorpha,  thus  express- 
ing a  relationship  with  the  squirrels  which  is  more  completely 
seen  in  internal  structure  than  in  externals.  The  family  differs 
from  the  squirrels  in  not  possessing  the  postorbital  frontal 
processes  and  in  the  oblique  positions  of  the  molar  series.  The 
teeth  are  imperfectly  rooted  and  the  enamel  is  folded,  more  as  in 
the  Muridce.  Some  doubt  may  be  expressed  as  to  the  correctness 
of  this  reference,  since  in  several  characters  the  resemblance 
is  with  the  Myomorpha.  The  existing  members  of  the  Castori- 
dce  are  modified  for  aquatic  life  and  seem  to  have  descended 
from  aquatic  species. 

The  Myomorpha  include  several  aquatic  species  but,  beyond  a 
superficial  resemblance,  even  the  muskrat  has  little  in  common 
with  the  beavers. 

Beavers,  not  very  unlike  the  existing  species,  made  their  ap- 
pearance during  the  Miocene  Tertiary.  The  genera  Trogono- 
therium  in  India  Ghalicomys  in  Europe  and  Steneofiber  and  Eucastor 
in  America  were  companions  of  their  more  favored  relative.  The 
Miocene  was  the  period  during  which  the  rodents  differentiated 
-11 


170  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

most  rapidly,  leaving  little  but  retrenchment  for  the  following 
periods. 

Eucastor  was  a  genus  of  small  beavers  the  known  examples 
of  which  were  less  than  half  the  size  of  our  species.  There  is 
some  reason  to  doubt  if  it  is  more  than  sub-generically  distinct 
from  the  modern  form. 

Steneofiber  and  Palceocastor  are  vicarious  genera,  the  one  in 
Europe  the  other  in  America,  which  may  easily  be  identical. 

Trogonotherium  contained  species  considerably  larger  than  ex- 
isting beavers. 

GENUS  CASTOR. 

Feet  five- toed,  hind  feet  palmate;  body  stout,  especially  be- 
hind; tail  laterally  expanded,  scaly;  skull  somewhat  as  in 
squirrels  but  without  postorbital  frontal  processes.  Molars 
—-,  single  rooted,  the  dentinal  pulp  persisting  until  a  late  per- 
iod, triturating  surface  composed  of  enamel  folds;  lower  jaw 
massive,  symphysis  firmly  closed.  The  genus  is  represented 
at  present  by  a  single  circumpolar  species  which  may  be 
divided  into  two  sub-species  or  varieties  with  very  close  rela- 
tions. 

The  very  careful  review  of  the  evidence  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  relation  of  the  two  forms  given  in  Dr.  Ely's  account 
contained  in  Morgan's  "Beaver  and  His  Works",  makes  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  matter  unnecessary.  Certain  constant  but  min- 
ute differences  in  osteology  and  the  nature  of  the  secretion  are 
demonstrated,  while  the  importance  to  be  admitted  for  them 
must  be  a  matter  of  opinion. 

Castor  flb^r  LINN. 

BEAVER. 

Body  thick  and  heavy,  with  the  greatest  diameter  near  the 
hips,  length  about  30  inches;  tail,  10  inches;  the  head  is  broad, 
depressed;  nostrils  lateral  in  a  naked  muffle;  ears  nearly  hidden 
in  the  fur,  rounded;  the  fore  feet  are  small  and  are  not  used  in 
swimming;  hind  feet  broad,  webbed,  second  toe  often  with  a 
double  claw;  color,  reddish-brown,  darker  in  winter.  The  long 
hairs  are  coarse  and  glossy,  the  under  pelage  soft,  fluffy  and  of 
a  grayish  color.  Melanism  is  common  northward,  albinoes  not 
being  rare.  The  beaver  is  the  largest  North  American  rodent; 
indeed,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  capybara,  it  is  the 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  171 

largest  living  species,  and  but  few  fossil  forms  could  have  much 
excelled  it,  the  gigantic  Casteroides,  elsewhere  mentioned,  be- 
ing perhaps  the  largest  as  it  was  nearly  the  size  of  a  black  bear. 
A  detailed  account  of  the  anatomy  of  the  animal  is  given  in 
Capt.  Morgan's  work  already  referred  to,  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred. 

The  natural  history  of  the  beaver  makes  a  pleasing  chapter 
in  science  both  on  account  of  the  charming  social  habits  of  the 
animal  and  the  intelligence  indicated  by  his  architectural 
powers.  The  beaver  is  par  excellence  the  builder  among  our 
native  animals  and  the  forethought  evidenced  by  the  dams  and 
other  structures  compels  interest. 

With  the  teeth  for  ax  and  chisel  and  the  tail  as  trowel,  the 
beaver  is  able  to  perform  feats  of  mechanical  engineering 
worthy  of  human  tools  and  ingenuity.  The  fore  feet,  although 
small  and  useless  in  swimming,  are  dexterously  employed  in 
building,  there  being  considerable  play  between  the  bones  of 
the  fore  arm.  The  claws  are  strong  and  and  adapted  to  bur- 
rowing as  the  animal  is  regularly  fossorial.  The  hind  feet  are 
fully  webbed  and  the  claw  of  the  second  toe  has  a  curious  pro- 
jection below  peculiar  to  this  animal.  The  hearing  and  smell 
are  acute  and  in  part  compensate  for  rather  imperfect  sight. 
Although  social,  the  social  instinct  extends  but  little  beyond 
the  family  circle  and  is  by  no  means  so  extended  as  often 
imagined. 

From  two  to  six  young  are  born  after  a  period  of  gestation  of 
about  three  or  four  months.  The  young  are  born  in  May  and 
may  be  weaned  in  six  or  eight  weeks. 

The  food  of  the  beaver  consists  almost  entirely  of  the  bark 
and  wood  of  deciduous  trees,  birch,  cottonwood,  willow,  poplar 
and  maple  being  preferred.     In  order  to   obtain   the   green 
nutritious  bark  of    the  branches,    trees  of  astonishing  size, 
considering  the  implement  used,  are  cut  down  and  dismembered. 

In  preparing  for  winter  great  industry  is  shown.  As  the 
beaver  does  not  hibernate,  he  requires  suitable  food  laid  away 
for  four  months  of  enforced  confinement.  Like  the  pocKet 
gophers,  they  are  equal  to  the  emergency.  Commencing  in 
September  they  cut  and  store  their  winter's  food.  Though  this 
labor  is  performed  chiefly  at  night,  beavers  are  not  strictly 
nocturnal.  In  regions  where  they  have  been  unmolested  they 
swim  freely  by  day  and  sun  themselves  like  the  mnskrat. 

The  location  of  the  burrow  and  the  building  of  the  lodges  in- 
dicate great  skill,  judgment  or  instinct. 


172  BULLETIN    NO.    VII. 

The  beaver  is  naturally  pre-emminently  a  burrowing  animal 
and  the  lodge  is  thought  to  have  been  derived  from  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  burrow.  Where  the  burrows  have  been  broken 
into  by  accident  they  are  frequently  repaired  with  sticks  and 
grass,  thus  imitating  a  lodge  and  perhaps  suggesting  how  the 
latter  may  have  originated. 

The  burrow  is  the  city  of  refuge  and  is  always  provided 
although  the  family  occupies  a  lodge.  The  entrance  to  these 
burrows  is  usually  from  beneath  the  roots  of  a  tree  and  the 
adit  may  be  ten  or  fifteen  feet  long.  The  chamber  in  which  it 
terminates  is  perhaps  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  end  of  the 
burrow  is  often  protected  by  a  pile  of  sticks  which  serves  in 
winter  to  prevent  the  solidification  of  snow  over  the  chamber 
and  thus  excluding  the  air.  Such  heaps  of  sticks  may  have 
been  the  introductory  step  to  the  formation  of  the  lodge.  In 
many  regions  where  beavers  are  abundant  lodges  are  not  found. 
The  European  variety  does  not  exhibit  the  architectural 
skill  for  which  ours  is  noted. 

The  lodge  seems  to  be  adapted  for  a  brood  chamber,  and 
varies  with  its  location.  It  is  a  dome- shaped  structure  com- 
posed of  poles  and  earth.  The  lodge  is  small  at  first,  and  is 
not  abandoned  at  the  end  of  the  season,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
muskrat,  but  is  enlarged  annually.  The  cavity  within,  which 
usually  communicates  with  the  exterior  by  two  openings,  is 
gradually  enlarged,  and  the  lodge  receives  increments  of  sticks 
from  without.  The  sticks  laid  up  for  winter  are  used  in  the 
spring  for  repairing  the  lodge  and  the  dam.  Each  fall  the 
lodge  is  plastered  externally  with  mud,  which  freezing  makes 
it  very  firm.  A  large  lodge  may  measure  over  twenty  feet  in 
external  diameter,  and  the  chamber  corresponding,  eight  feet, 
and  a  foot  and  one-half  in  hight.  The  floor  of  the  chamber  is 
usually  near  the  water's  edge,  and  is  beaten  hard.  The  skill 
displayed  in  the  construction  of  a  lodge  is  no  greater  than  that 
of  the  muskrat ;  the  superiority  of  the  beaver  lies  in  his  skill 
in  constructing  dams  and  other  structures  secondary  to  the 
lodge.  Canals  and  dams  constitute  the  chef  d'ouvre  of  the  bea- 
ver. The  dam  precedes  the  lodge  in  the  order  of  formation, 
and  is  designed  to  retain  the  water  in  the  pond  selected  as  the 
site  of  the  lodge  at  a  constant  level.  The  dam,  like  the  lodge, 
is  of  gradual  formation,  and  is  not  necessarily  the  product  of 
co-operative  industry  beyond  the  limits  of  a  single  family. 
Dams  are  either  permeable  or  compact.  The  solid  dam  is  pre- 
ferred where  the  opening  is  well  defined  and  furnished  with 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  173 

firm  banks.  The  dam  is  begun  by  laying,  sticks  in  regular 
order  parallel  to  the  current  and  loading  with  rocks  and  mud. 
Nothing  of  the  nature  of  stakes  or  piles  is  employed.  The 
poles  may  be  twelve  feet  long,  and  are  arranged  with  great 
precision.  The  inner  slope  is  more  abrupt,  and  is  faced  with 
earth  and  turf,  forming  below  an  impervious  layer.  The  dam 
requires  constant  repairing,  and  may  be  added  to  annually 
until  it  becomes  a  very  considerable  and  solid  structure.  The 
upper  part  of  the  dam  being  more  permeable  than  the  lower, 
the  water  is  permitted  to  percolate  through  without  gathering 
head  at  any  place,  thus  preventing  injury.  The  best  authori- 
ties state  that  there  is  no  co-operatiou  in  the  work  of  repairing, 
but  that  each  beaver  examines  and  builds  as  he  sees  fit.  Others 
claim  that  there  is  a  systematic  supervision  by  older  members 
of  the  clan  and  appointed  relays,  reserves  and  the  like.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  close  concert  of  action  observed.  When 
busily  engaged  upon  their  structures,  carrying  earth  and  trow- 
eling it  upon  the  inside  of  the  dam,  or  patting  it  firmly  on  the 
lodges  with  their  tails,  the  appearance  is  very  like  that  of 
a  disciplined  force  of  builders,  and  at  the  approach  of  danger, 
the  simultaneous  disappearance  of  the  party,  each  with  a  dis- 
tinct slap  upon  the  water  with  the  tail,  tends  to  high  ten  the 
effect  of  concerted  action. 

The  beaver  not  only  forms  dams  and  lodges,  but  excavates 
extensive  canals  through  the  swampy  ground  adjacent  in  order 
to  transport  the  cuttings  and  boughs  used  in  construction. 
Often  the  trees  used  by  the  beaver  are  not  found  in  immediate 
proximity  to  the  pond,  and  such  canals  are  carried  to  the  higher 
ground  where  suitable  growths  of  poplar,  birch  or  maple  are 
situated.  The  boughs  used  upon  the  dam  are  often*so  large  as 
to  be  carried  with  great  difficulty  on  land,  but  can  be  trans- 
ported by  water  with  ease.  Sach  canals  also  connect  the  pond 
with  the  burrow  where  the  margins  are  soft  and  swampy. 
Canals  of  this  sort  are  often  over  100  feet  long.  Where  the 
banks  are  abrupt  the  beaver  excavates  inclined  passages  or 
slides,  somewhat  similar  to  otter  slides,  along  which  the  brush- 
wood is  carried  to  the  stream.  This  reminds  one  of  what  may 
be  seen  along  the  white  cliffs  in  the  Tyrol,  where  well-worn 
slides  several  hundred  feet  long  mark  the  ways  along  which 
peasants  send  the  faggots  used  for  fuel  in  the  valleys. 

When  abundant,  the  beaver  is  easily  trapped,  and  its  fur  was 
once  a  staple  commodity  among  the  early  settlers,  often  taking 
the  place  of  currency.  The  trap,  which  is  a  medium- sized 


174  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

double-  spring  steel,  smoothed-  jawed  trap,  is  placed  in  a  breech. 
in  the  dam  and  is  intended  to  catch  the  unconscious  repairer 
by  the  hind  foot,  as  the  fore  foot  would  be  torn  away  or  severed 
by  the  teeth.  Traps  are  also  frequently  set  at  the  opening  of 
the  lodges  or  burrows,  or  even  in  frequented  run-ways.  The 
usual  practice  is,  where  possible  to  arrange  the  ring  at  the  end 
of  the  chain  so  that  it  will  slide  downward  upon  an  obliquely 
placed  pole  and  drown  the  beaver,  which  instinctively  dives 
when  first  discovering  its  peril. 

Sometimes  gum  camphor,  castoreum  or  oil  of  juniper  is  used 
to  attract  beaver  to  the  vicinity  of  the  trap.  A  more  destruc- 
tive method  is  sometimes  employed.  A  party  systematically 
drives  the  beaver  from  the  lodges  to  the  burrows,  the  mouths 
of  which  are  then  stopped,  and  the  beaver  are  dug  out  and 
easily  secured.  The  Indian  resorts  to  a  method  requiring  more 
patience  and  cunning.  The  pile  of  twigs  gathered  for  food  is 
barricaded,  only  a  single  opening  being  left.  This  is  guarded 
by  a  twig,  the  movement  of  which  apprizes  the  watcher  of  the 
entrance  of  the  unsuspecting  animal  into  the  enclosure,  which 
is  now  closed,  and  the  beaver  being  confined  under  the  ice  soon 
drowns  and  is  removed  to  make  room  for  another  victim.  A 
single  trapper  can  care  for  a  line  of  thirty  or  forty  miles. 

The  beaver  has  been  generally  distributed  over  the  wooded 
parts  of  the  United  States.  The  following  quotation  fromGeikie's 
Geological  Sketches  will  illustrate  the  conditions  in  many  other 
regions:  "The  extent  to  which  the  valley  bottoms  in  this  and 
the  other  mountain  ranges  of  western  North  America  have  been 
changed  by  the  operations  of  this  animal  is  almost  incredible. 
In  a  single  valley,  for  example,  hundreds  of  acres  are  gradually 
submerged-  and  their  cottonwood  or  other  tree-  growth  is  killed. 
In  this  way  the  floor  of  the  valley  is  cleared  of  timber.  The 
beaver  ponds,  eventually  silting  up,  become  first  marshes  and 
then,  by  degrees,  fine  meadows." 

In  most  of  the  wooded  parts  of  Minnesota  beaver  were  once 
abundant,  but  the  traces  of  their  existence  are  rapidly  disap- 
pearing, and  lodges  can  now  be  found  only  in  the  inaccessible 
regions  far  northward. 


FAMILY 

The  North  American  Muridce,  according  to  Dr.  Coues,  may  be 
characterized  as  follows  : 

Dental  formula:  i.  -}-:}.  c.  £:$  pm.  -§:g-  m.  f  :f.  Anteorbital 
foramen  a  large  pyriform  slit,  bounded  anteriorly  by  a  broad 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  175 

plate  of  the  maxillary.  Coronoid,  condylar,  and  descending 
processes  of  the  mandible  well  developed  and  distinct.  Tibia 
and  fibula  united  below.  Two  sub-families  Murinoe  and  Arvico- 
lince  are  here  recognized. 

SUBFAMILY  MURING. 

This  subfamily  contains  a  large  number  of  sprightly  animals, 
represented  very  familiarly  by  the  domestic  pests,  and  easily 
distinguishable  from  the  field  mice,  which  constitute  the  other 
subfamily  of  the  Muridce,  by  their  slender,  lithe  form,  large 
eyes  and  ears,  pointed  snout,  and  the  long  tail,  which  is  cov- 
ered with  circlets  of  scales. 

In  this  subfamily  the  teeth  are  rather  adapted  to  an  omnivo- 
rous diet  than  a  strictly  herbivorous  or  gramnivorous  one. 
The  incisors  are  rather  narrow,  squirrel-like,  and  the  molars 
are  rooted  and  with  tuberculate  crowns.  The  skull  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  arvicoline  rodents.  The  nasal  bones 
project  forward.  The  zygomas  are  abruptly  curved  downward, 
the  palate  is  simple,  and  the  angle  of  the  mandible  not  strongly 
hamular. 

Instead  of  going  into  elaborate  details  it  is  thought  better  to 
reproduce  the  admirable  tabular  statement  drawn  up  by  Dr. 
Coues  and  published  in  Monographs  of  North  American  Roden- 
tia,  p.  45. 

NORTH  AMERICA.  SOUTH   AMERICA. 

a.  With  grooved  upper  incisors. 

Genus  OCHETODON,  Coues.    Form  i  Genus  KEITHRODON,  Waterh.  Form 
murine.  leporine. 

b.  With  smooth  upper  incisors. 

Subgenus      VESPERIMUS,     Coues.      Subgenus  CALOMYS,  Waterh.  Form 


Form  murine. 

Subgenus       ONYCHOMYS,     Baird. 
Form  arvicoline. 


Submenus  ORYZOMYS,  Baird.   Form 

rat-like. 
Genus  HOLOOHILUS.  Brandt.  Form 

rat-like. 


murine. 
Subgenus   HABROTHRIX,    Waterh . 

Form  arvicoline. 
Subgenus  OXYMICTERUS,  Waterh. 


Genus  SIGMODON ,  Say .  Form  arvi- 
coline. 

Genus  NEOTOMA,  Say.  Form  rat- 
like. 


176  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

GENUS  VESPERIMUS,  COUES. 

A  word  of  explanation  is  necessary  in  thus  employing  the 
name  usually  considered  subgeneric  under  Hesperomys  as  of  full 
generic  value.  This  change  was  the  result  of  an  attempt  to 
diagnose  the  genus  Hesperomys  as  it  now  stands  in  our  litera- 
ture, with  the  groups  Vesperimus,  Onychomys,  Oryzomys,  Calomys, 
Habrothrix  and  Oxymicterus  as  subgenera.  It  was  found  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  these  genera  collectively  from  the  associated 
genera  by  any  characters  of  a  higher  sort  than  those  separating 
them  among  themselves.  In  this  dilemma  the  simplest  remedy 
seemed  to  be  to  disregard  altogether  the  generic  name 
Hesperomys,  which  was,  as  pointed  out  by  Baird,orginally  applied 
to  the  whole  group  of  Sigmodont  Muridce.  Moreover,  Hesperomys 
would  need  to  give  place  to  the  prior  name,  Sigmodon,  if  its  sig- 
nification were  simply  restricted  to  the  whole  group  to  which 
it  could  naturally  be  applied.  Sigmodon,  however,  is  duly  rec- 
ognized as  a  valid  generic  term,  and  for  our  part  we  do  not  see 
that  any  harm  can  result  from  the  change  proposed. 

The  genus  Vesperimus  was  amply  characterized  by  its  founder 
and,  as  by  him  diagnosed,  includes  animals  of  medium  or  small 
size,  lithe  form  and  quick  movement.  The  long  hind  legs  and 
rather  short  anterior  extremities  adapt  them  for  rapid  running 
and  springing,  while  the  short  fore  claws  indicate  that  they  are 
not  fossorial.  The  fore  feet  are  rather  less  than  half  as  long 
as  the  six  tubercled  soles.  The  palms  are  naked,  while  the 
soles,  in  most  of  the  species,  are  furry  posteriorly.  The  tail  is 
usually  long  as  compared  to  other  native  mice,  ranging  from 
considerably  longer  than  the  remainder  of  the  body  to  the 
length  of  the  trunk  alone. 

The  head  presents  an  animated  appearance.  The  bright 
prominent  eyes,  large  sparsely  pilous  ears  and  acute  muzzle 
conspiring  to  give  vivacity  to  the  face.  The  ears  are  unusually 
large  and  thin.  The  colors  are  bright,  and  the  contrast  between 
the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  both  body  and  tail  is  marked. 

The  most  unreflecting  person  would  be  forced  to  admire  the 
sprightly  deer  mice,  and  they  universally  attract  attention, 
while  their  inroads  upon  the  graneries  are  rarely  so  great  as 
to  merit  the  execration  poured  upon  their  domestic  cousins. 

The  cranial  and  other  anatomical  characters  maybe  gathered 
from  the  specific  description  beyond  ;  a  few  points  only  need 
be  noticed.  Characteristic  features  are  the  slender  rostral 
part  occasioned  by  development  of  the  nasals  and  premaxilla- 
ries,  the  broad,  low,  cranial  portion,  and  deflected  zygomas. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  177 

The  lower  jaw  is  elongated,  with  low  coronoid  and  broad  but 
not  hamular  angle.  The  skull  is  twice  as  long  as  wide.  The 
length  of  the  lower  jaw  is  about  three  times  its  hight. 

The  scapula  differs  from  that  bone  in  Arvicola  by  being  less 
slender  and  having  a  short  acromium  and  broad  metacromium. 
The  deltoid  ridge  of  the  humerus  is  fairly  developed.  The 
sternum  consists  of  six  sternebrae,  the  manubrium  being  very 
broad  anteriorly.  The  fibula  is  united  with  the  tibia,  as  in 
Arvicola,  but  is  less  slender,  and  the  limb  is  proportionally 
longer. 

We  have  purposely  omitted  the  dentition  from  the  above 
account,  preferring  to  quote  Coues'  statements  as  the  most  sat- 
isfactory general  account  at  hand: 

''The  molar  series  is  both  short  and  narrow,  between  one- 
sixth  and  one-seventh  the  length  of  the  skull.  .  .  .  The  molars 
rapidly  decrease  in  size  from  before  backward,  particularly  in 
the  upper  jaw,  where  the  last  one  is  subcircular,  and  not  more 
than  half  as  large  as  the  middle  one,  which  itself  is  less  than 
the  front  one.  .  .  .  The  molars  of  the  upper  jaw'have  three 
roots  apiece,  two  external  and  one  internal;  those  of  the  under 
jaw  have  but  two,  placed  one  after  the  other  on  the  median  line. 
.  .  .  The  unworn  molars  of  Hesperomys  show  a  double 
lengthwise  series  of  conical  tubercles  connected  by  lower  cross- 
wise ridges,  and  the  whole  face  of  the  tooth  is  encased  in  a 
sheet  of  enamel  continuous  with  that  of  the  sides  of  the  tooth. 
.  .  .  The  tubercles  are  not  exactly  opposite  each  other  in 
crosswise  pairs,  but  are  half -alternating.  Down  between  the 
bases  of  these  conical  eminences  are  seen  furrows,  the  more 
readily  noticeable  because  generally  blackened,  apparently  by 
the  sticking  of  foreign  matter  in  them.  They  represent  the 
deep,  close-curved  plications  of  enamel  that  penetrate  the  tooth 
from  either  side,  the  ends  of  the  loops  nearly  or  quite  meet- 
ing in  the  substance  of  the  tooth.  ...  It  will  be  seen  that, 
after  abrasion  has  commenced,  the  molar  crowns  will  present  a 
different  pattern  with  each  stage  of  the  process.  .  .  .  The 
student  may  imagine  the  top  of  a  pigeon  pie,  full  of  humps  and 
hollows,  gradually  razeed  down  by  a  succession  of  thin  parallel 
horizontal  slices.  Let  the  crust  be  the  enamel,  and  the  substance 
of  the  pie  the  dentine  ;  the  first  slice  will  shave  off  the  tops  of 
one  or  more  humps,  exposing  the  interior  (dentine)  in  isolated 
places,  these  islands  lying  in  a  network  of  crust  (enamel)." 

The  habits  seem  to  be  as  uniform  as  the  structure,  and  our 
species  may  furnish  an  idea  of  the  group. 


178  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


Vesperimus  leucopus  RAFINESQUE. 
WHITE-FOOTED  OR  DEER  MOUSE. 

PLATE  XI. 

M us  sylvaticus  var.,  ERXLEBEN,  Syst.  An.,  1775. 

M us  sylvaticus  var.  novebiracewis  FISCHER,  Synopsis,  1829. 

Mas  noveboracensis  SELYS-LONGCFIAMPS,  Etudes  de  microm.,  1639. 

Mus  agrarius  var.  americanus,  KERB'S  Linnaeus,  1792. 

Mus  agrarius  GODMAN,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  1860. 

Musculus  leucopus  RAFINESQUE,  Am.  Monthly  Mag.,  1818. 

Mus  leucopus  DESMAREST,  Mam.,  1822. 

HARLAN,  Fauna  Amer..  1825. 

GRIFFITH,  Animal  Kingd.,  1827. 

FISCHER,  Synopsis,  1829. 

RICHARDSON,  Fauna  Bor.  Am.,  1829. 

DEKAY,  N.  Y.  Zool.,  1842. 

AUD.  &  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  Am.,  1849. 

THOMPSON,  Nat.  Hist.  Vermont,  1853. 

KENNICOTT,  Agri.  Rep.  U.  S.  Pat.  Office,  1856. 
Hesperomys  leucopus LECONTE,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1852. 

BAIRD,  Mammals  of  N.  A.,  1857. 

ALLEN,  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  1869,  1870. 

BALL,  Alaska  and  its  Resources,  1870. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Arch.  Naturgesch.,  1862;  Verzei.  N.  Am. 

Saugeth.,1362. 
Hesperomys  (Calomys)  leucopus  WAGNER,  Schreber's  Saug. 

GIEBEL,  Die  Saugethiere,  1859. 
Hesperomys  (Vesperimus)kucopus  COUES,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila. ,1874; 

Monogr.  North  Arner.  Rod.,  1877. 
Hesperomys  ( Vesperimus)  americanus  COUES  &  YARROW,  Rep.Zool.  Expl.  W. 

100  Merid.,  1875. 

Cricetus  myoides  GAPPER,  Zool.  Journ.,  1830. 
Hesperomys  myoides  BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Arvicola  emmonsi  DEKAY,  Rep.  Quadrupeds  Mass.,  1840. 
Hesperomys  maniculatus  WAGNER,  Wiegmann's  Archiv.,  1843-1845;  Abhand. 

Akad.  Wiss.,  1848. 

Hesperomys  polionotus  WAGNER,  Wiegmann's  Archiv.,  1843. 
Hesperomys  campestris  LECONTE,  Proc.,  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 

AUD.  &  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A.,  1854. 

BAIRD,  Mammals  N.  A.,  1857. 

Hesperomys  texanus  WOODHOUSE,   Proc.   Acad.,  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853; 
Sitgreaves'  Rep.  Expl.  Zuni  R.,  1853. 

AUD.  &  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A.,  1854. 

BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A., 1857;  U.  S.  &  Mex. Bound.  Surv.,1859. 

KENNERLY,  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  1859. 
Hesperomys  cognatus  LECONTE,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1855. 

BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Hesperomys  gracilis  LECONTE,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1855. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  179 

Hesperomys  austcrus  BAIRD,   Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1855;  Mam.  N. 
Amer.,  1857. 

COOPER  &  SUCKLEY,  Nat.  Hist.  Wash.  Ter.,  1860. 

Hesperomys  boylii  BAIRD,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.Sci.  Phila., 1855. Mam. N.A., 1857. 
Hesperomys  gambeli  BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857:  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  1859. 

NEWBERRY,  P.  R.  R.  Rep.,  1857. 

COOPER  &  SUCKLEY,  Nat.  Hist.  Wash.  Ter.,  1860. 

The  white-footed  or  deer  mouse  is  familiar  to  every  farmer's 
boy,  and  claims  admiration,  not  only  on  account  of  its  graceful 
form  and  spirited  appearance,  but  by  its  pretty  though  subdued 
coloration  and  sprightly  movements.  The  soft  brown  pelage 
of  the  upper  parts  contrasts  nicely  with  the  pure  white  of  the 
feet  and  under  parts.  The  origin  of  the  name  deer  mouse  is 
found  partly  in  the  fawn  color  which  is  the  normal  color  of  the 
back  and  partly  also  in  the  long  leaps  by  which  the  mouse  es- 
capes its  pursuers.  In  the  young  the  shade  is  less  bright  and 
is  more  like  that  of  the  house  mouse,  while  the  dorsal  colora 
tion  extends  downward  on  the  outside  of  the  legs.  That  the 
animal  is  subject  to  interminable  variations  in  color  is  seen  from 
the  long  list  of  synonyms  given.  A  full  discussion  of  the  value 
of  specific  characters  based  on  such  varieties  of  coloration  may 
be  found  in  Coues'  article  on  this  species  in  the  monographs  of 
N.  A.  Rodentia,  already  frequently  referred  to.  It  may  be  ad- 
mitted without  discussion  that  the  specific  identity  of  the  names 
united  above  is  settled  once  for  all  by  that  author's  careful 
revision.  Our  Minnesota  specimens,  when  adult,  are  remarka- 
bly uniform,  and  present  no  noteworthy  variations.  The  upper 
parts  are  a  warm  brown  as  far  as  well  down  upon  the  shoulder 
and  hips.  The  back  is  considerably  darkened  by  numerous 
nearly  black  hairs  while  the  tail  is  dark  brown  above  and  pure 
white  below.  The  thighs  are  gray.  The  ears  are  dark  with  a 
white  margin.  There  is  a  dark  spot  at  the  base  of  the  whisk- 
ers which  are  themselves  black.  The  size  of  this  species  varies 
somewhat,  but  the  chief  differences  are  in  the  proportional 
length  of  tail  and  body. 

For  Minnesota  the  following  measurements  are  typical  for 
the  female: 

Total  length  7.0;  tail  3.4;  body  3.6;  hind  foot  0.9;  fore-fuot 
0.4;  span  of  hind  legs  4.4;  of  fore  legs  3.4;  nose  to  eye  0.55; 
nose  to  ear  1.0;  hight  of  ear  0.7. 

The  length  of  the  male  is  less  by  half  an  inch  than  in  the 
female,  the  proportions  remaining  about  the  same. 

According  to  Coues  the  averages  of  eighty  specimens  from 
Massachusetts  are  as  follows: 


180  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

Total  length  6.45;  trunk  3.25;  tail  3.20;  nose  to  eye  0  50;  nose 
to  ear  0.90;  palms  0.34;  soles  0.80;  ears  0.55. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  measurements  of  prepared  speci- 
mens in  which  age  and  sex  are,  for  great  part,  neglected,  are 
eminently  untrustworthy.  Could  such  sources  of  error  be 
eliminated  probably  much  of  the  variability  assumed  would 
disappear.  Although,  therefore,  the  size  of  Minnesota  speci- 
mens seems  slightly  to  exceed  the  average  of  the  eastern  form, 
there  is  no  certainty  of  this,  our  measurements  giving  the  full 
normal  size.  On  the  other  hand  the  length  of  the  tail  and  the 
size  fully  distinguish  our  deer  mice  from  the  Arctic  variety 
which  is  characterized  by  a  shorter  tail  and  larger  size.  The 
size  is  about  as  in  the  nominal  variety  "myoides,"  but  the  tail  is 
not  generally  as  long  as  the  head  and  body.  Our  specimens 
may  be  unhesitatingly  compared  with  those  from  northern  New 
England.  Students  of  these  animals  should  be  warned  that  the 
length  even  of  the  tail  and  feet,  particularly  the  former, 
changes  considerably  in  drying,  hence,  only  fresh  measure- 
ments are  of  positive  value  in  a  critical  discussion.  As  we  have 
but  three  quite  distinct  forms  of  the  numerous  styles  of  Ves- 
perimus  in  Minnesota  we  are  happily  not  required  to  meddle 
with  such  matters. 

'  'It  [the  white-footed  mouse]  is  a  good  climber,  and  I  have 
often  found  its  nest  in  ,holes  in  living  trees,  more  than  seventy 
feet  above  the  ground.  While  on  a  snow-shoe  walk  with  a 
friend  one  bright  moonlight  evening,  several  winters  ago,  one 
of  them  was  observed  skipping  lightly  over  the  snow  a  short 
distance  ahead.  We  gave  chase,  but  the  mouse  escaped  by 
running  up  the  trunk  of  a  smooth -barked  beech  hard  by.  My 
friend,  who  was  not  aware  of  its  climbing  propensities,  looked 
on  in  amazement  while  the  mouse,  with  as  much  ease  and 
nimbleness  as  a  squirrel,  ascended  the  tree  and  disappeared  in 
a  knot-hole  high  among  the  branches. 

"The  white-footed  mouse  does  not  hibernate.  Except  during 
the  severest  weather,  its  tracks  may  be  seen  on  the  snow 
throughout  the  winter,  its  long  tail  leaving  a  furrow  by  which 
it  may  always  be  recognized.  In  the  autumn  it  lays  up  an  im- 
mense store  of  provisions  for  so  small  an  animal1." 

In  forest  regions  beech-nuts  are  said  to  usually  furnish  the 
winter  larder  and  it  is  not  rare  to  find  several  quarts  thus 
stored  away.  Kennicott  speaks  of  having  found  within  a 

(1).    Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks,  p.  263. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  181 

stump  in  a  clover  field,  several  quarts  of  clean  red  clover  seed 
collected  by  a  family  of  these  mice. 

Dr.  Samuel  Lockwood  in  the  "American  Naturalist"  for  1871 
contributes  a  delightful  chapter  on  the  musical  capacities  of 
the  wood  mice.  This  we  quote  almost  entire  as  placing  the 
animal  before  us  in  vivid  and  novel  light  and  applying  almost 
as  well  to  the  present  species. 

"Last  spring  my  friend,  Philip  Ryall,  Esq.,  brought  from 
Florida  a  mouse  which  he  had  captured  in  his  residence  there. 
He  says  that  for  a  number  of  nights  a  low  sound  of  a  more  or 
less  musical  nature  had  been  heard  proceeding,  as  was  sup- 
posed, from  the  chimney,  and  which  was  very  naturally  attrib- 
uted to  the  chimney  swallow.  One  day  a  small  mouse  came 
from  under  the  hearth  into  the  middle  of  the  floor  of  the  sitting- 
room,  sat  up  and  sang  for  about  a  minute  and  retired.  This 
explained  the  mystery.  Its  nightly  music  and  its  daily  visit 
were  continued,  almost  invariably,  the  visit  being  limited  to 
the  same  small  area  of  the  floor.  It  was  determined  to  capture 
the  little  stranger,  which,  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts, 
was  finally  accomplished.  Last  June  the  interesting  little  fel- 
low was  very  kindly  passed  into  my  custody.  My  first  concern 
was  to  add  to  its  comfort  by  enlarging  its  cage,  also  to  provide 
in  every  possible  way  a  condition  of  things  suited  to  its  nature. 
For  all  this  I  was  amply  rewarded  in  the  fine  health  and  the 
musical  performances  that  followed. 

"*A  little  study  soon  determined  that  the  pretty  creature 
belonged  to  the  Vesper  mice.  It  is  known  by  the  popular 
names  of  Jumping  mouse,  Wood  mouse  and  White- footed  mouse. 
Our  specimen  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  its  own  genus,  for  the 
precise  species  is  the  one  known  to  naturalists  as  Hesperomys 
cognatus  Leconte.  This  fact,  so  novel,  once  determined  gave 
additional  zest  to  my  purpose  to  make  it  an  object  of  especial 
study.  To  give  it  individuality,  as  it  was  fast  becoming  a  pet, 
I  named  it  Hespie,  which  name,  as  its  object  was  female,  was 
certainly  appropriate.  I  thought  she  soon  learned  to  know  me, 
and  certainly  I  soon  came  to  regard  her  with  attachment.  Yet, 
the  truth  told,  she  was  a  pretty,  pert  and  unamiable  little  miss, 
and  would  permit  no  familiarity,  always  biting  the  finger  that 
attempted  to  touch  her.  Her  animation,  agility  and  graceful- 
ness of  motion  were  wonderful.  Sometimes  a  fly  would  enter 
the  cage,  when  she  would  spring  at  and  catch  it,  sometimes 
with  her  mouth  and  at  others  with  her  hands.  This  she  would 
eat  with  great  relish.  So  uniformly  quick  were  her  motions, 


182  BULLETIN   NO.    VTI. 

that  on  one  occasion  my  little  boy  said :  *  Papa,  I  would  like 
to  see  mousie  walk  just  once.'  Her  taste  was  quite  omnivorous, 
although,  unlike  the  domestic  mouse,  she  did  not  care  for 
cheese.  But  meat,  corn,  nuts,  sugar  and  even  pudding  and  fish 
were  all  acceptable.  A  little  sod  of  fresh  grass  and  white  clover 
was  occasionally  put  into  the  cage.  This  she  enjoyed  greatly, 
eating  the  greens  like  a  rabbit;  only  always  insisting  on  sitting 
up  to*  it.  It  was  interesting  to  witness  how  ready  she  was 
for  emergencies.  Sitting  on  her  hind  feet,  she  would  take  hold, 
with  her  hands,  of  a  blade  of  grass  and  begin  eating  at  the  tip. 
The  spear  would  rapidly  shorten,  and  seemingly  she  must  now 
stoop  to  finish  it,  or  do  it  in  the  ordinary  quadrupedal  style. 
Now,  that  was  just  what  she  did  not  choose  to  do.  So,  when 
the  emergency  came,  she  would  stoop  down  and  in  a  trice  cut 
the  blade  off  close  to  the  sod  with  just  one  nip,  then  up  again 
on  her  feet  in  a  sitting  posture,  she  would  finish  it  in  a  com 
fortable  and  becoming  way.  On  one  occasion  a  worm  crept 
out  of  the  sod  and  Hespy  at  once  fell  to  it  and  soon  had  it 
tucked  away  without  cooking.  As  to  exercise,  she  manages 
to  take  a  great  deal.  In  the  day  time  her  exercise  is  less,  as 
she  does  a  good  deal  of  sleeping  then.  It  is  at  night  that  her 
peculiar  talents  appear  to  advantage,  beginning  at  vespers,  as 
her  name  might  imply.  Then,  as  a  singer,  her  genius  literally 
shines.  It  is  with  her  singing  that  we  are  most  concerned,  and 
indeed,  at  the  moment  of  this  writing  (for  it  is  night)  she  is  in 
fine  song.  Perhaps,  however,  it  will  seem  more  literal  and 
actual  if  her  performances  are  described  in  the  past  tense. 

"Our  little  musician  had  several  snatches  or  bits  of  melody 
which  were  often  repeated.  But  in  her  repertoire  were  two 
notable  ones,  each  of  which  deserves  to  be  dignified  as  a  profes- 
sional role.  The  one  by  far  the  more  frequent  is  noted  below, 
and  because  it  is  her  favorite,  when  running  in  her  revolving 
cage,  it  was  named  ;  The  Wheel  Song.  '* 

' '  The  last  bar  of  this  would  frequently  be  prolonged  to  two 
or  three,  and  she  would  sometimes  change  from  c  sharp  to  d,  to 
c  natural  and  d,  then  warble  on  these  two  notes  awhile  and  wind 
up  with  a  quick  chirp  on  c  sharp  and  d.  The  distinctions  be- 
tween the  semi -tones  was  very  marked  and  easily  appreciable 
to  a  good  ear.  I  have  always  enjoyed  the  mellow  little  strains 
of  the  song  of  the  sparrow  and  the  house  wren.  But  in  either 
case  it  was  short  and  apt  to  become  monotonous  from  its  admit- 
ting almost  no  variation.  Monotony  was  not  chargeable  to 

*  The  musical  notation  was  written  by  my  son,  Ferris  C.  Lockwood. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


183 


Hespie's  Wheel  Song.  With  unconscious  skill  she  would  work 
it  out  in  wonderful  variety.  Instead  of  the  first  measure,  she 
would  sometimes  open  with  the  second  one  and  then  follow  it 
with  the  first.  Or  she  might  start  with  the  third,  following 
with  the  second  or  first,  just  as  fancy  seemed  to  dictate.  Then 
she  had  her  whims  as  to  the  amount  of  repetition  of  each  bar, 
that  is  to  say,  she  would  double  or  even  triplicate  a  measure 
when  the  notion  took  her.  In  this  regard  time  was  quite 
ignored.  Indeed,  whatever  may  have  been  the  Hesperomys' 
canon  of  musical  procedure  or  propriety,  we  could  not  but  re- 
gard it  as  arbitrary,  or  beyond  our  comprehension.  Still,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  this  litile  performer  possessed  precis- 
sion,  delicacy  and  scope  of  excution. 
NO.  I.  THE  WHEEL  SONG. 


8va 


NO.  2    THE  GRAND  ROLE. 

8va 


"She  had  one  role,  which  although  the  notation  is  simpler 
than  that  of  the  Wheel  Song,  yet  I  think,  to  her,  its  execution 
was  more  difficult.  It  is  certain  that  she  wa$  far  more  chary  of 
its  performance,  and  to  me  its  effect  seemed  more  impressive. 
I  have,  on  account  of  its  inf  requency,  distinguished  it  as  '  The 
Grand  Role.' 


184  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

'  *  This  was  seldom  given,  yet  quite  often  enough  to  allow  it  to 
be  written  down  on  board.  The  second  measure  would  be  sung 
quite  fast,  sounding  almost  like  the  pecking  of  a  woodpecker 
on  a  tree,  and  at  other  times  it  would  be  slow  like  the  dropping 
of  water.  Although  she  had  no  ear  for  time,  yet  she  would 
keep  to  the  key  of  &  (two  flats),  and  strictly  in  a  major  key. 
This  fact  I  consider  interesting,  as  Wood  declares  his  belief  'that 
the  untaught  cries  of  all  the  lower  animals,  whether  quadru- 
peds or  birds,  are  in  the  minor  key. '  Herein  theory  must  yield 
to  observation.  If  I  might  venture  an  opinion,  it  would  be 
that  the  music  of  the  really  musical  wild  animals  is  oftener  on 
a  major  key,  while  the  minor  key  characterizes  savage  man. 
A  remarkable  fact  in  the  above  role  is  the  scope  of  little  Hespie's 
musical  powers.  Her  soft,  clear  voice  falls  an  octave  with  all 
the  precision  possible;  then,  at  the  wind-up,  it  rises  again  into 
a  quick  trill  on  c  sharp  and  d. 

"Though  it  be  at  the  risk  of  taxing  belief  yet  I  must,  in  duty, 
record  one  of  Hespie's  most  remarkable  performances.  She 
was  gamboling  in  the  large  compartment  of  her  cage,  in  a  mood 
indicating  intense  animal  enjoyment,  having  awoke  from  a  long 
sleep,  and  partaken  of  some  favorite  food.  She  burst  into  a 
fullness  of  song  very  rich  in  its  variety.  While  running  and 
jumping,  she  rolled  off  what  I  have  called  her  Grand  Role;  then 
sitting,  she  went  over  it  again,  ringing  out  the  strangest  diver- 
sity of  changes,  by  an  almost  whimsical  transposition  of  the 
bars;  then,  without  for  an  instant  stopping  the  music,  she  leapt 
into  the  wheel,  started  it  revolving  at  its  highest  speed, 
and  went  through  the  wheel  song  in  exquisite  style,  giving 
several  repetitions  of  it.  After  this  she  returned  to  the  large 
compartment,  took  up  again  the  Grand  Role,  and  put  into  it 
some  variations  of  execution  which  astonished  me.  One  meas- 
ure, I  remember,  was  so  silvery  and  soft  that  I  said  to  a  lady 
who  was  listening,  that  a  canary  able  to  execute  that  would  be 
worth  a  hundred  dollars.  (I  occasionally  detected  what  I  am 
unable  to  explain,  a  literal  dual  sound,  very  like  a  boy  whist- 
ling as  he  draws  a  stick  along  the  pickets  of  a  fence,)  So  the 
music  went  on,  as  I  listened,  watch  in  hand,  until  actually  nine 
minutes  had  elapsed.  Now  the  wonderful  fact  is,  that  the  rest 
between  the  roles  was  never  more  than  a  second  of  time,  and 
during  all  the  singing,  the  muscles  could  be  seen  in  vigorous 
action  through  the  entire  length  of  the  abdomen.  This  feat 
would  be  impossible  to  a  professional  singer,  and  the  nearest 
to  it  that  I  have  seen  was  the  singing  of  a  bird  in  the  grove. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  185 

"For  several  days  the  wheel  grated  on  its  axle.  This 
afforded  Hespie  great  delight,  and  her  own  little  warble  was 
completely  lost  in  the  harsher  sound.  It  was  pretty  much  as  it 
is  with  some  of  the  modern  methods  of  praise,  as  when  the 
vocal  is  subordinated  to  the  instrumental,  a  mere  murmur  of 
song,  on  which  the  organist  comes  down  as  with  the  sound  of 
many  waters.  A  drop  of  oil,  and  the  sound  of  the  friction 
stopped.  This  quite  excited  her  temper,  and  she  bit  at  the 
wires  of  her  wheel  most  viciously.  A  little  device  was  hit  upon 
which  set  her  in  good  humor  again.  A  strip  of  stout  writing 
paper,  half  an  inch  wide,  was  pinned  down  in  such  a  way  that 
its  clean-cut  upper  edge  pressed  against  the  wires  of  the  wheel, 
making  with  its  revolution  a  pleasant  purring  sound.  It  was 
on  the  principle  of  the  old-time  watchman's  rattle,  and  the  old 
toy  known  as  a  cricket. 

'  'This  for  a  while  greatly  delighted  the  capricious  creature, 
and  she  made  the  wheel  almost  fly  ;  at  the  same  time,  in  unison 
with  the  whirr  of  the  wheel,  was  her  own  soft,  cheery  warble. 
It  was  very  low,  yet  very  distinct.  I  remember  once  on  a 
larger  scale  witnessing  an  analogous  sight,  when,  unseen,  I 
entered  a  room  in  which  was  a  woman  spinning  wool,  and  sing- 
ing at  the  top  of  her  voice,  in  keeping  with  the  loud  whirring 
of  the  spinning  wheel.  Without  her  wheel  the  domestic  life  of 
little  Hespie  would  be  rather  monotonous.  *  *  *  We  next 
shut  her  out  of  the  wheel  by  corking  up  the  entrance.  She 
worked  desperately  at  the  closed  aperture  ;  then  in  despair 
gave  vent  to  a  piercing  little  cry.  It  was  surprizing  what  a 
strange  pleasure  this  sound  afforded  me,  it  showed  so  clearly 
the  difference  in  the  timbre  or  quality  of  the  sound  of  distress 
from  that  which  I  have  called  its  singing.  She  was  a  good 
deal  excited,  and  ran  frantically  into  and  out  of  her  little  bed- 
box,  which  had  a  hole  at  each  end.  Soon  this  tiny  gust  of  rage 
passed  over.  She  now,  though  running  about  her  cage,  indulg- 
ing in  little  gambols,  indicating  grace  and  agility,  struck  off 
into  a  truly  beautiful  strain  of  song.  It  occupied  about  three 
minutes,  and  had  in  it  considerable  scope  and  variety.  First, 
there  was  a  clearly  enunciated  expression  like  that  of  the 
cooing  of  a  turtle  dove,  a  soft  note  with  a  deliberate  slowness. 
This  changed  into  a  series  of  more  rapid  notes  strangely  sug- 
gesting the  not  so  weird-like,  the  conchy  clamor  of  the  Ameri- 
can cuckoo  (Coccyzus),  then  closing  with  a  series  of  short,  rapid 
sounds  like  the  tapping  of  a  woodpecker  on  a  tree."  "A  very 
noticeable  fact  was,  that  a  great  deal  of  this  little  creature's 

-12 


186  BULLETIN  NO   VII. 

song  was  poured  forth  while  at  play,  that  is,  while  in  actual 
activity ;  and,  take  the  wheel-play,  for  instance,  when  really 
in  quite  violent  exercise.  A  thing,  too,  which  much  surprised 
me,  was,  that  often  when  eating  she  sang  and  ate  at  the  sanae- 
time,  literally  in  the  same  breath.  This  singular  habit,  so 
suggestive  of  a  great  physiological  difficulty,  led  to  an  in- 
cident, which  caused  considerable  merriment  for  those  who 
witnessed  it.  I  had  been  examining  some  insect  larvae  on  a 
twig  of  black  alder.  Without  any  real  motive,  a  bit  of  the 
twig,  about  an  inch  long,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  was 
offered  Hespie.  She  was  delighted,  and  at  once  began  in  her 
usual  pretty  way,  sitting  up,  to  eat  the  bark,  although  it  is  very 
bitter.  Thus  she  sat  "bolt  upright;"  and  the  manner  in  which 
she  held  this  little  black  stick  in  both  her  hands  up  to  her  mouth, 
at  the  precise  angle  at  whith  a  fife  is  held,  although  nibbling 
away,  yet  singing  at  the  same  time,  it  looked  so  like  a  little 
fifer  playing  on  an  ebony  fife  that  laughter  was  irresistible  at 
the  comical  sight." 

"Wishing  to  see  how  this  Hesperomys  would  behave  in  com- 
pany, I  put  into  her  cage  a  young  domestic  mouse  about  one- 
third  grown.  She  was  asleep  in  her  little  box.  When  she 
awoke  it  was  a  pretty  sight.  What  animation!  How  the  black 
eyes  started  and  sparkled!  To  me  they  seemed  to  snap  with 
fire.  The  whole  frame  was  in  a  quiver — first  of  astonishment, 
then  with  rage.  It  was  not  a  run — but  a  jump  which  she  made 
at  the  little  involuntary  intruder,  who  received  a  nip  that  made 
it  squeal  in  terror.  We  removed  the  little  captive,  who  was  so 
astonished  that  it  was  quite  content  to  lie  in  our  hand.  Its  ter- 
ror had  won  our  pity,  and  we  restored  to  it  its  liberty. "  *  *  * 
*  'And  now  we  ask  are  these  phenomena  that  have  been  herein 
described  the  result  of  an  abnormal  condition  of  things  or  not? 
How  much  truth  is  there  in  the  theory  of  some  that  the  singing 
of  these  mice  is  the  result  of  disease,  or  of  some  bronchial  dis- 
turbance? In  my  opinion  the  following  reasons  disprove  the 
truth  of  any  such  theory : 

1.  The  exquisite  animal  enjoyment  and  actual  physical  con- 
dition, for  it  is  fat  and  perfect  in  pelage  and  form,  indicating  high 
health.     Every  form  of  bronchial  disease  is,  in  its  most  ordi^ 
nary  effect,  depressing  to  the  animal  spirits. 

2.  When  engaged  in  song,  the  exercise  reaches  to  the  very 
depth  of  the  chest,  as  is  so  often  seen  in  the  lowing  of  kine, 
where  the  muscles  may  be  observed  in  action  for  the  whole 
length  of  the  abdomen.     Persons  afflicted  bronchially  avoid 
deep  vocal  exercise. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  187 

3.  The  singing  is  so  often  performed  under  those  precise 
circumstances  in  which  bronchially  diseased  persons  are  sure 
to  keep  still,  if  possible.     For  instance,  take  the  Wheel  Song. 
Here,  although  the  exercise  was  violent,  yet  the  song  would  be 
sustained  with  no  diminution  of  vocal  strength;  and  quite  fre- 
quently was  it  the  case,  that  when  the  animal  stopped  turning 
the  wheel,  though  it  continued  the  song,  the  momentum  would 
throw  it  on  its  back,  when  as  if  in  surprise,  it  would  roll  off 
four  or  five  notes  on  a  higher  octave,  and  in  a  greatly  increased 
loudness  of  voice. 

4.  Our  vesper  mouse  delights  in  a  role,  the  performance  of 
which  argues  three  facts:    A  high  organization  of  the  organs 
of  the  voice;  delicate  and  skillful  adjustment  during  use;  a  per- 
fect condition  as  respects  health.     She  can  sing  and  eat  at  the 
same  time.     *    *    *    Now  this  fact,  in  the  case  of  our  Hesper- 
omys,  that  it  could  eat  and  sing  at  the  same  time,  even  admit- 
ting, what  is  probably  true,  that  there  are  intervals  of  very 
short  duration  (so  short  as  to  be  almost  indiscernible)  when  the 
epiglottis  closes  to  allow  the  food  to  pass  down  the  gullet, 
demonstrates,  as  we  think,  that  the  organization  of  those  parts 
was  very  delicate,  and  that  the  whole  organism  was  in  the  very 
highest  condition  of  health." 

Although  the  particular  mouse,  above  so  pleasantly  described, 
came  from  Florida,  it  is  certain  that  the  musical  powers  are  not 
confined  to  any  section,  for  several  different  species  of  various 
genera  have  afforded  examples  of  more  or  less  highly  developed 
musical  powers,  as  witness  the  following  note  quoted  from  the 
American  Naturalist  of  1871,  p  171 : 

"A  communication  in  the  Naturalist  some  time  ago  in  regard 
to  musical  mice,  prepared  me  for  a  phenomenon  which  recently 
came  under  my  observation,  which  otherwise  would  have  aston- 
ished me  beyond  conception.  I  was  sitting  a  few  evenings 
since,  not  far  from  a  half -open  closet  door,  when  I  was  startled 
by  a  sound  issuing  from  the  closet,  of  such  marvelous  beauty 
that  I  at  once  asked  my  wife  how  Bobbie  Burns  (our  canary) 
had  found  his  way  into  the  closet,  and  what  could  start  him  to 
singing  such  a  queer  and  sweet  song  in  the  dark?  I  procured 
a  light,  and  found  it  to  be  a  mouse  !  He  had  filled  an  overshoe 
from  a  basket  of  popcorn  which  had  been  popped  and  placed  in 
the  closet  in  the  morning.  Whether  this  rare  collection  of  food 
inspired  him  with  song  I  know  not,  but  I  had  not  the  heart  to 
disturb  his  corn,  hoping  to  hear  from  him  again.  Last  night 
his  song  was  renewed.  I  approached  him  with  a  subdued  light 


188  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

and  with  great  caution,  and  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  him  sit- 
ting among  his  corn  and  singing  his  beautiful  solo.  I  observed 
him  without  interruption,  for  ten  minutes,  not  over  four  feet 
from  him.  His  song  was  not  a  chirp,  but  a  continuous  song  of 
musical  tone,  a  kind  of  to  wit-to-wee-woo-woo-wee-woo,  quite 
varied  in  pitch.  While  I  observed  him  I  took  for  granted  that 
he  was  a  common  house  mouse  (Mus  musculus),  but  when  he 
sprang  from  the  shoe  to  make  his  escape  he  appeared  like  the 
prairie  mouse  (Hesperomys  michiganensis),  a  species  I  had  not 
however,  observed  before  indoors.  I  have  thus  far  failed  to 
secure  this  little  rodent  musician,  but  I  shall  continue  to  do  all 
I  can  in  the  way  of  popcorn  to  entertain  him,  and  if  his  marvel- 
ous voice  gives  him  the  pre  eminence  in  mousedom  which  he 
deserves,  by  the  aid  of  natural  selection  I  shall  presently  have 
a  chorus  of  mice;  in  which  case  you  shall  receive  their  first 
visit. — W.  O.  Hiskey,  Minneapolis,  Minn." 

The  writer  has  been  informed  of  many  similar  cases,  making 
it  certain  that  the  musical  performances  described  above,  are  in 
no  way  exceptional,  but  showing  that  considerable  musical 
powers  are  universal  among  Hesperomys.  That  the  song  is 
not  a  voluntary  expression  of  pleasure  has  been  suggested  by 
many.  The  most  recent  data  in  favor  of  the  pathological 
nature  of  mouse  music  has  been  offered  by  Mr.  Davis.* 

While  wandering  about  the  house  its  tell-tale  song  gave 
notice  of  its  wanderings.  ' '  When  removing  it  from  the  trap 
to  the  cage,  and  many  times  afterward,  it  ran  about  a  small 
room,  and  the  most  noticeable  feature  on  these  occasions  was 
the  unvaried  song,  it  being  especially  loud  if  I  caused  the  mouse 
to  scamper  around  the  room  several  times  without  stopping. 
When  gnawing  upon  the  exposed  wood  in  the  cage,  when  eat- 
ing, or  when  disturbed  in  its  nest,  this  singing  was  particularly 
loud;  in  fact,  upon  any  exertion,  the  song  was  produced,  vary- 
ing in  volume  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  exercise." 

"It  was  just  previous  to,  and  for  some  time  after  the  birth  of 
two  miserable  little  young  that  Mus  sang  most  continuously.'' 

It  would  be  of  great  interest  to  determine  by  anatomical 
examination  whether  the  singing  mice  are  suffering  from  bron- 
chial disease. 

*Wm.  T.  Davis.    The  Song  of  the  Singing  Mouse.    Am.  Naturalist,  1889,  p.  481. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


189 


Vesperimus  sonoriensis  LECONTE  . 

THE  SONORA  MOUSE. 

Mus  leucopus  RICHARDSON,  Zool.  Journ.,  1818;  Fauna  Bor.  Am.,  1829. 
Hesperomys  sonoriensis  LECONTE,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 

AUDUBON  AND  BACHMAN,  Quad.  North  America,  1854. 

BAIRD,  Mam.  K  A.,  1857;  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound.  Surv.,1859. 
Hesperomys  leucupus sonoriensis  COUES,  Monogr.  N.  Am.  Rodentia,  1877. 

The  little  animal  known  as  Hesperomys  sonoriensis  is  a  resident 
of  the  western  interior  region  and  might  be  regarded  as  a  per- 
manent prairie  variety  of  H.  leucopus  but  for  the  fact  that  the 
two  species  are  associated  at  the  limits  of  their  geographical 
range  instead  of  fading  insensibly  into  each  other  as  geographical 
varieties  of  recent  origin  might  be  expected  to  do.  Our  collec- 
tion embraces  a  considerable  number  of  specimens  collected  at 
Brown's  Valley  and  other  points  near  the  western  line  of  Min- 
nesota where  this  form  is  the  most  abundant  mouse.  There  is 
a  very  remarkable  uniformity  in  size  and  coloration  which  both 
are  sufficiently  unlike  the  deer  mouse  to  be  easily  distinguish- 
able. On  the  whole,  the  colors  may  be  said  to  be  considerably 
lighter  and  less  conspicuous  than  in  the  deer  mouse,  but  still 
they  are  bright  and  attractive.  The  white  parts  encroach 
more  upon  the  dorsal  area  than  in  our  more  eastern  mouse  and 
the  line  of  demarkation  is  more  distinct,  there  being  none  of 
the  gray  on  the  hips  usually  seen  in  the  latter,  and  the  sides  and 
lower  parts  are  beautifully  white.  The  brown  portion  of  the 
tail  is  a  narrow  stripe  and  the  back  is  not  so  conspicuously 
marked  with  black  hairs  as  in  leucopus.  Besides  these  differ 
ences  in  the  whole  anterior  portion,  the  pelage  is  sifted  over 
with  whitish  so  as  to  give  it  a  grayish  tinge,  while  only  on  the 
rump  is  found  the  bright  reddish  brown  of  our  familiar  species. 
Should  the  color  not  prove  distinctive  the  marked  difference  in 
size  is  sufficiently  conspicuous. 

The  following  table  fairly  represents  the  limits  of  normal 
variation  and  in  one  case  (No.  100)  a  specimen  to  some  extent 
resembling  the  deer  mouse. 


No. 

Nose 
toanus 

Tail. 

Nose 
to  ear. 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Hind 
foot. 

Fore 
foot. 

Ear. 

Sex. 

Date. 

32 

325(9) 

2  44 

0  88 

0  56 

0.87 

Dec  4   1883 

89 
90 
91 
98 

3.62 
3.38 
3  60 
3.55 

2.25 
2.40 
2  25 
2  35 

0.90 
0.75 
1.00 
0.95 

0.50 
0.45 
0.50 
0.50 

0.72 
0.71 
0.70 
0.70 

0.38 
0.35 
0.35 
0.35 

0.50 
0.50 
0.51 

female 
female 
male 
female 

July  1,  1885. 

99 

3.50 

2.00 

0.95 

0.50 

0.70 

male 

100 

3.85 

2.60 

1.00 

0.57 

0.80 

0.35 

male 

101 

3.80 

2.36 

1.05 

0.50 

0.75 

0.55 

male 

106 

3.80 

2.40 

1.00 

0.50 

0.72 

female 

July  4,  1885. 

107 

3.75 

2.20 

0.98 

0.49 

0.70 

female 

190  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

There  is  no  evidence,  so  far  as  our  state  is  concerned,  that 
the  three   species   of    Vesperimus  merge   into  each  other.    V. 
michiganensis  and  V.  sonoriensis  are  associated  westwardly  and 
although  the  exact   line  of  contact  between  the  latter  and  F. 
leucopus  has  not  been  studied  it  is  presumable  from  appear- 
ances that  this  line  corresponds  with  the  western  forest  limit 
and  is  quite  sharp. 

The  westward  range  of  the  species  includes  Dakota,  Mon- 
tana, Wyoming,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Colorado,  Utah,  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  part  of  California. 

The  Arctic  mice  of  this  group  resemble  the  present  species  in 
having  short  tails  but  for  a  reason  quite  different  from  that 
which  would  by  assumed  in  this  case.  The  color,  moreover, 
in  the  latter  is  darker.  The  matter  of  coloration  is  so  largely 
dependent  on  the  humidity  of  the  climate  that  our  western 
mice,  at  least  within  the  influence  of  the  Red  River  valley,  are 
much  darker  than  typical  F.  sonoriensis  of  the  plains.  Of  the 
habits  we  know  nothing  to  distinguish  them  from  the  common 
deer  mouse.  They  may  be  seen  springing  about  among  the 
high  grass  at  times  although  probably  less  saltatorial  than  the 
deer  mouse. 

Yesperimus  michiganensis  AUD.  AND  BACH. 

THE  MICHIGAN  MOUSE. 

(Plate  XI.) 

Mus  michiganensis  AUDUBON  AND  BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.    Sci. 

Phila.,  1842  ;  Quadrupeds  N.  A.,  1854. 
Hesperomys  michiganensis  WAGNER,  Wieg.  Archiv.,  1843. 

BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Hesperomys  (Vesperimus)  michiganensis     COTJES,   Proc.   Acad.   Nat.   Sci. 

Phila.,  1874 ;  Monogr  N.  A.  Rodentia,  1877. 
Mus  bairdii  HOY  and  KENNICOTT,  U.  S.  Pat.  Offlc.  Rep.  Agric.,  1856. 

The  Michigan  mouse  is  common  throughout  the  upper  Mis- 
sissippi valley  and  the  states  adjoining  and  is  of  reasonably 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  south  eastern  parts  of  Minnesota. 
This  mouse  may  be  at  once  distinguished  from  the  deer  mice 
by  its  small  size,  small  tail  and  feet  and  the  darker  coloration. 
Unless  examined  carefully  the  color  will  usually  seem  not 
greatly  brighter  than  in  the  house  mouse.  The  general  gray 
of  the  upper  parts  is  mingled  with  yellowish  on  the  sides, 
especially  upon  the  cheeks,  as  Audubon  points  out,  while  the 
whole  back  is  very  dark  brown.  (The  colors  are  rather 
brighter  than  usual  in  our  drawing.)  The  gray  of  the  sides 
extends  down  the  outside  of  the  limbs  to  the  wrist  and  ankle. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  191 

The  head  is  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  deer 
mouse  but  the  ears  are  smaller  although  they  are  obviously 
margined  with  white  and  otherwise  in  color  and  form  as  in  V. 
leucopus.      The  tail  is  about  as  long  as  in  V.  sonoriensis  but  is 
less  densely  hairy  and  has  a  broader  dark  stripe  above.     One 
of  our  Minnesota  specimens  ( as  figured)  has   both  hands  and 
feet  snowy  white  while  in  more  southern  and  eastern  specimens 
they  are  said  to  be  dark.     The  following  measurements  per- 
tain to  the  specimen  figured: — length  5.63  ;  tail  2.38  ;  head  and 
body  3. 25 ;sole  0. 68  ;f oref oot  0. 37  ;nose  to  eye  0. 50 ;  nose  to  ear  0. 87. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  measurements  indicate  a  larger 
animal  than  usual,  besides  being  one  which  in  some  other 
points  approaches  \7.  leucopus.  Our  Michigan  mice  are  more 
domestic  in  their  habits  than  the  deer  mice  and  may  be  en- 
countered about  buildings  even  in  towns  of  some  size.  One  was 
taken,  in  1877,  in  the  basement  of  the  University  at  Minneapolis. 

The  range  of  the  present  species  is  rather  more  limited  than 
that  of  other  members  of  the  subgenus  but  is  nevertheless  far 
less  restricted  than  has  been  hitherto  supposed.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  prairie  animal,  and  will  probably  be  found  to  be  limited 
in  range  by  the  extent  of  the  prairies  as  distinguished  from  the 
plains  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  forest  regions  on  the  other.  It 
maybe  found  throughout  the  whole  of  the  southern  half  of 
Minnesota,  but  is  most  abundant  in  the  southwestern  and  south- 
ern portions.  In  Dakota  it  mingles  freely  with  the  Sonora 
mouse  without  exhibiting  the  least  tendency  to  approach  it  in 
coloration,  and  on  the  east  is  gradually  superseded  to  a  very 
large  extent  by  the  deer  mouse,  from  which  it  is  even  more 
evidently  distinct.  Upon  the  rolling  prairies  of  the  south  and 
west  it  may  be  said  to  be  alone  in  its  own  territory.  Two  very 
well  marked  varieties  occur  which,  so  far  as  the  present  writer's 
experience  goes,  are,  in  a  general  way,  connected  with  open  or 
more  umbrageous  stations.  Both  varieties  are  found  together 
in  some  cases,  but  the  majority  of  the  specimens  found  in  Da- 
kota and  to  the  south  and  west  will  undoubtedly  be  found  to  ad- 
here to  one  type  of  coloration  and  those  in  the  east  to  another. 

Qn  first  encountering  the  Michigan  mouse  near  Big  Stone 
lake  upon  the  western  boundary  I  was  inclined  to  imagine  that 
a  species  hitherto  unseen  lay  before  me,  so  different  was  the 
whole  ensemble,  but  comparisons  and  the  variations  exhibited 
by  a  large  series  of  specimens  made  clear  the  essential  conso- 
nance in  most  points  with  V.  michiganensis. 

Inasmuch  as  this  varietal  difference  is  quite  different  from 
that  mentioned  by  Hoy  and  Kennicott  as  separating  H.  bairdii 
from  H.  michiganensis  it  may  be  well  to  define  it  more  minutely- 


192 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


The  eastern  Michigan  mouse  although  much  less  bright  than 
H.  leucopus  has  on  the  sides  a  decided  brownish  cast,  or  even 
fawn  color,  while  the  typical  western  variety  has  scarcely  a 
trace  of  any  other  tint  than  black  and  white  except  on  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  tail.  About  the  head  there  is  the  same  hoari- 
ness  exhibited  by  other  prairie  mice,  as  though  faded  by  the 
sun.  As  a  rule  there  is  a  less  sharply  defined  line  of  demarka- 
tion  between  back  and  belly  than  in  more  eastern  specimens 
examined. 

In  all  the  Michigan  mice  examined  the  ear  is  white -rimmed 
in  spite  of  Dr.  Coues'  assertion  to  the  contrary.  Although  the 
dorsal  dark  area  may  not  reach  the  hand  there  is  invariably  a 
dark  blotch  on  the  wrist  which  may  or  may  not  embrace  the 
whole  upper  surface  of  the  hand. 

The  following  table  of  measurements,  of  which  all  but  the 
last  two  refer  to  specimens  captured  near  the  western  line  of 
Minnesota,  may  show  the  variations  in  size  and  can  be  taken 
as  fully  trustworthy,  having  been  made  with  great  care  from 
fresh  specimens: 


No. 

Nose 
to 
anus. 

Tail. 

Nose 
to  ear  . 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Hind 
foot. 

Ear. 

Sex. 

Date. 

108 
111 
113 
117 

3.00 
3.25 
3.12 
3.20 

1.90 
2.15 
1.90 
2.00 

0.90 
'6.'90' 

0.45 

'oiso' 

0.73 
0.70 
0.70 

0.60 

'o'.ss' 

male 
male 
male 
male 

July  5,  1885. 
July  5,  1885. 
July  7,  1885. 
July  7,  1885. 

118 
119 

3.20 
3.45 

2.00 
2.20 

0.85 

0.50 

0.70 
0.70 

0.50 

male 
male 

July  7,  1885. 
July  9,  1885. 

21 

3.25 

2.37 

0.87 

0.50 

0.68 

female 

Nov.,  1883. 

83 

2  80 

1  90 

0  50 

0  70 

male 

9  (Alcohol). 

SUBFAMILY  ARVICOLIN^E. 

The  field  mice,  which  are  included  in  this  section  of  the 
immense  rat  family,  may  be  readily  recognized,  as  a  rule,  by 
their  rather  clumsy  and  squatty  form,  blunt  muzzle  and  small 
ears.  Tail  and  limbs  are  generally  short,  while  the  eyes  are 
small.  The  fur  is  often  thick  and  fluffy,  while  the  colors  are 
predominatingly  rusty  brown.  The  north  temperate  regions 
of  both  hemispheres  form  the  habitat  of  the  majority  of  the 
species.  None  occur  in  South  America.  As  in  other  northern 
mammals,  there  is  rather  a  close  conformity  between  the  faunae 
of  Europe  and  America. 

The  anatomical  characters  are  no  less  conspicuous.  The 
incisors  are  broad  and  short.  The  molars  are  perfectly  pris- 
matic, and  their  growth  is  continuous,  so  that  after  the  crowns 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  193 

are  worn  off  the  pattern  does  not  vary  greatly  with  use.  In 
almost  all  the  species  the  molars  are  rootless.  The  palate  is 
not  flat,  as  in  Murince,  but  variously  complicated.  The  zygoma 
is  not  deflected  as  far  downward  as  in  Murince,  and  it  is  not 
emarginate  at  its  anterior  origin.  The  nasals  are  broad  and 
short.  The  angle  of  the  mandible  is  arched.  The  scapula  is 
narrow,  with  long,  slender  acromium.  The  proportions  of  the 
limb  bones  are  different  from  those  common  in  Murince. 

GENUS  HYPUD^US  ILLIGER.* 

This  small  genus  fittingly  introduces  the  arvicoline  group  of 
rodents  forming  a  transition  as  it  does  between  the  Murince  or 
common  mouse  subfamily  and  the  field  mice  or  Arvicolince. 

The  separation  of  the  genus  from  other  field  mice  is  a  matter 
of  convenience  as  well  as  morphologically  demanded.  The 
very  few  species  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
and  are  so  closely  related  that  they  might  without  serious  im- 
propriety be  reduced  to  varieties  of  a  single  circumpolar 
species,  Mus  rutilus  Pallas. 

The  external  form  is  sufficiently  like  that  of  our  common 
field  mouse,  Arvicola  riparius,  but  the  color  is  bright,  all  these 
mice  deserving  the  adjective  "red-backed".  The  red-backed 
mice  are  inhabitants  of  the  woods  as  distinguished  from  the 
prairie  mice  and  those  so  disposed  may  see  in  the  color  illus- 
trations of  protective  coloration.  The  wood  mice  frequent 
decaying  trees,  the  pulverent  wood  surrounding  which  com- 
monly has  a  color  very  like  that  of  the  mice.  The  prairie  mice 
are  exposed  to  greater  danger  and  have  a  color  not  unlike  that 
of  the  sear  grasses  or  the  earth. 

The  genus  is  so  essentially  arvicoline  that  the  diagnostic 
features  may  take  the  form  of  points  varying  from  that  type 
in  the  direction  of  the  Murince.  In  form  arvicoline,  but  rather 
less  slender  and  with  longer  ears.  Colors  bright  or,  at  least, 
strongly  red.  Molars  each  with  two  roots  (instead  of  rootless 
as  in  Arvicola  or  fully  rooted  as  in  Murince).  The  teeth  are 
otherwise  as  in  the  field  mice  bub  less  completely  broken  up 

*ln  using  this  name  for  the  genus  lately  renamed  Evotomys  by  Coues,  we  follow 
Keyserling  and  Blasius,  Prof.  Baird  and  European  authors  generally.  It  seems  a  mis- 
fortune that  in  nomenclature  as  well  as  in  more  vital  matters  there  should  be  no 
articulation  between  the  scientific  labors  of  the  two  continents.  Dr.  Coues  has  in  the 
case  of  this  genus  (as  well  as  frequently  elsewhere)  shown  the  intimate  relations 
between  the  mammals  of  Europe  and  North  America.  It  is  therefore  a  positive  misfor- 
tune if  the  same  group  bears  different  names  on  the  different  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  It 
seems  that  the  technicality  involved  might  be  well  ignored  in  this  ease  and  the  above 
name,  which  has  been  more  or  less  fully  instated  in  theIlterAtufinf  both  continents' 
retained  for  this  group. 


UHIVBRSITY 


194  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

into  distinct  prisms.  The  faces  of  the  upper  molars  especially 
present  less  complicated  figures  than  usual;  instead  of  alter- 
nating triangles  we  find  single  irregular  figures  extending 
entirely  across  the  tooth.  The  skull  is  very  broad  and  is 
greatly  inflated  in  the  perotic  region,  the  auditory  bullse  being 
larger  than  in  any  other  mouse.  The  bony  palate  is  broad- and 
rather  short  and  abruptly  truncate  at  the  posterior  nares  ( not 
with  a  second  shelf  before  reaching  the  basis  cranii).  The 
pterygoids  are  not  very  prominent.  The  cranium  is  large 
while  the  facial  portion  is  greatly  reduced  and  the  interorbital 
distance  is  quite  small.  The  posterior  extremity  is  propor- 
tionally large  but  there  are  no  indications  of  either  saltatorial 
or  fossorial  capacities. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Coues  that  in  America  we  have  but 
a  single  species  of  this  genus,  H.  rutilus  Pallas,  which  occurs 
in  its  typical  form  throughout  the  Arctic  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent. It  is  thus  seen  that  H.  rutilus,  like  so  many  Arctic 
animals  is  circumpolar  in  distribution  and  has  become  modi- 
fied southwardly  so  as  to  give  rise  to  varieties  which  may  be 
diverse  in  the  western  and  eastern  hemispheres.  The  southern 
varieties  have  been  called  gapperi  in  America  and  glareolus*  in 
Europe,  there  being  nothing  to  show  them  distinct. 

Hypudaeus  rutilus  yar.  gapperi?  VIGORS. 

(Var.  glareolus  Sund.?) 

Arvicola  gapperi  VIGORS.  Zool  Journ.  v,  1830. 

DEKAY.  Zool.  of  New  York,  1842. 
SCHINZ.  Synop.  Mam.  ii,  1845. 
Hypudceus  gapperi  BAIRD.  Mam.  N.  Am.,  1857. 
Arvicola  fulva  AUDUBON  and  BACKMAN.   Journ.   Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila. 

viii,  1842. 

WAGNER,  Wiegmann's  Arch.,  1843. 
Arvicola  dekayi  AUD.  and  BACK.  Quad.  N.  Am.  iii,  1854. 
Ewtomys  rutilus  gapperi  COUES.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1874;  Monogr. 

N.  Am.  Kod.,  1877. 

*.     Mus  rutilus  var.  Pallas. 

Mus  glareolus  Sundeval,  1840. 
Mus  glareolus  Schreber. 
Hypudceus  hercynicus  Mehlis, 
Arvicola  rubidus  Longchamp. 
Arvicola  rufescens  Longchamp. 
Arvicola  riparia  Yarrell,  Jenyns. 
Arvicola  pratensis  Bell,  Macgillivray. 
Hypudoeus  glareolus  Wagner. 
Arvicola  glareolus  Giebel. 

(H.  nageri  Schinz.    May  not  belong  here,  it  being  an  Alpine  species  imperfectly  des- 
cribed.) 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


195 


The  close  relationship  between  this  variety  and  H.  rutilus 
was  first  shown  by  Coues  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia  in  1874.  The  differences  con- 
sist in  a  somewhat  greater  size  and  a  considerably  greater 
development  of  the  extremities  in  accordance  with  the  general 
law  that  the  extremities  are  shorter  in  northern  individuals  of 
a  species  extensively  distributed  than  in  southern  examples  of 
the  same  species.  If  the  size  be  really  less  than  in  H.  rutilus 
it  forms  an  exception  to  the  remainder  of  the  law  that  the 
absolute  size  is  usually  greater.  The  colors  are  darker, 
especially  the  sides  which  are  a  grayish  brown  instead  of  hav- 
ing the  milk  tinge  of  H.  rutilus. 

In  general  form  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  this  interest- 
ing animal  from  the  common  field  mouse.  It  can  be  at  once 
distinguished,  however,  by  the  color  and  the  greater  develop- 
ment of  the  ears.  These  organs  appear  quite  prominently 
above  the  fur  and  are  hirsute,  while  near  the  base  of  the  anti- 
tragus  is  a  tuft  of  stiff  hairs  longer  than  the  ear  itself. 

The  middle  of  the  back  from  the  crown  to  the  root  of  the  tail 
is  of  a  strong,  rusty  red  color,  given  a  grayish  cast  by  numerous 
black  hairs  sprinkled  through  the  pelage.  On  the  sides  the 
red  is  largely  replaced  by  brown,  so  that  the  resulting  color 
is  much  as  in  Arvicola  riparius.  The  bases  of  the  hairs  every- 
where are  plumbeous.  About  the  face  the  color  becomes  a 
grizzly  gray,  in  old  specimens  at  least.  Below  greenish  white 
of  various  degrees  of  purity  is  the  prevailing  color,  the  fur 
being  much  lighter  color  than  in  A.  riparius.  The  feet  partake 
in  the  same  coloration.  The  tail  is  distinctly  bicolored,  the  upper 
surface  being,  as  usual,  darker  than  the  prevailing  color  of  the 
back.  The  vibrissse  are  rather  longer  than  in  A.  riparius.  Con- 
siderable variations  in  the  coloration  occur,  the  breadth  of  the 
red  stripe  especially  being  far  from  constant,  either  in  width  or 
intensity. 

The  following  measurements  may  be  taken  as  a  very  fair 
showing  of  the  size  of  adults,  the  first  being  taken  in  autumn, 
the  second  in  spring,  and  in  adjacent  localities: 


NUMBER. 

Total 
length 

Head 
and  body. 

Tall. 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Nose 
to  ear 

Fore 
foot. 

Hind 
foot. 

31.  (Female?)  

5.70 

4.0 

1.70 

0.50 

0.95 

0.31 

0.75 

72.   (Male)  

4.90 

3.7 

1.20 

0  45 

1.30 

0.40 

0.70 

Averages  

5.13 

3.6 

1.53 

0.44 

0.85 

0.37 

0.72 

Coues'  averages,  published  in  his  monographs  of  North 
American  Rodentia,  are  placed  in  the  third  line  for  conven- 
ience of  comparison. 


196  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  tubercles  on  the  feet  furnish  reliable  generic,  if  not 
specific,  characters.  There  is,  in  this  species,  a  large  pad  at 
the  base  of  the  first  and  second  digits  of  the  hind  foot;  a  smaller 
one  lies  midway  between  the  third  and  fourth;  the  largest  one 
of  all  is  near  the  base  of  the  fifth  digit,  while  two  smaller  ones, 
one  on  the  outside,  the  other  on  the  inside  (the  latter  farthest 
back)  lie  behind  them.  The  under  surface  of  the  toes  appears 
scutilate.  and  the  sole  is  punctate,  while  all  that  portion  back 
of  the  pads  is  sparsely  hairy.  The  fore  foot  has  five  pads,  and 
the  thumb  nail  is  spade-shaped.  The  nasal  pads  are  very  small, 
and  the  head  is  blunt  and  stout,  in  fact  the  aspect  is,  as  has 
been  said,  very  much  like  that  of  a  field  mouse. 

While  our  information  does  not  permit  us  to  very  minutely 
describe  the  range  of  the  species,  we  know  of  its  occurrence  in 
most  parts  of  the  state.  The  following  localities  may  be  named : 
Hinckley,  Pine  county;  Milaca,  MilleLacs  county;  Minneapolis, 
Hennepin  county;  Brown's  Valley,  Traverse  county;  Ortonville, 
Big  Stone  county,  and  points  on  the  Red  and  Minnesota  rivers. 
It  was  not  found  on  the  Mississippi  at  Watab,  where  Arvicola 
riparius  is  very  common;  nor  can  it  now  be  found  near  Minne- 
apolis, though  once  common. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  this  variety  is  found 
as  far  south  as  Massachusetts,  and  in  New  York,  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin,  as  well  as  in  Washington.  It  merges  insensibly 
into  the  typical  H.  rutilus  to  the  north,  so  that  to  lay  down  an 
arbitrary  geographical  range  is  impossible. 

The  writer  has  observed  these  mice  very  abundant  in  dense 
woods  running  actively  from  fallen  log  to  stump  or  brush  heap 
in  broad  day  light,  the  rusty  red  color  being  scarcely  distin- 
guishable from  the  red  sawdust  which  often  forms  the  soil  or 
the  pine  needle  carpet.  The  food  can  only  be  surmised,  but 
the  stomach  is  quite  different  from  that  of  Arvicola,  being  more 
complicated  and  it  may  be  presumed  that  grass  seeds  do  not 
enter  as  largely  into  the  diet  as  in  the  latter.  By  the  first  of 
April  sexual  functions  are  at  their  hight,  the  testes  measur- 
ing 0.3. 

The  following  additional  measurements  are  appended  al- 
though they  are  not  all  from  fully  adult  specimens,  These  are 
from  specimens  collected  near  Big  Stone  lake  on  the  western 
line  of  Minnesota.  Although  by  no  means  abundant  it  is  not 
rare  in  the  region  of  the  upper  Minnesota: 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


197 


No. 

Nose 
to 
anus. 

Tail. 

Nose 
to  ear. 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Hind 
foot. 

Fore 
foot. 

Ear. 

Sex. 

Date. 

88 

3  60 

1  30 

0  94 

0  45 

0.70 

0  30 

o 

July  1885 

96 

2  90 

1  20 

0.65 

9 

Julv  1885 

97 

1.60 

0.90 

0.50 

0.38 

male 

(mutilated) 
July,  1885 

116 

3  80 

1  70 

0  90 

0  50 

0  70 

female 

(mutilated) 
July  7    1885 

"It  feeds  upon  beechnuts  and  a  variety  of  seeds,  berries,  and 
roots,  and  also,  at  certain  times  in  the  winter  season,  upon  the 
bark  of  shrubs  and  trees. 

'  'The  beech,  maple,  ash,  and  bass  suffer  most  severely  from 
its  attacks,  and  in  the  order  named.  The  bark  is  generally 
removed  in  irregular  areas  from  the  large  roots  just  above  the 
ground;  but  sometimes  saplings,  and  even  trees  a  foot  or  more 
in  diameter  are  completely  girdled  to  the  hight  of  three  or 
four  feet.  The  damage  thus  done  to  our  deciduous  groves  is 
sometimes  great,  but  does  not  compare  with  the  ravages  com- 
mitted by  the  field  mouse  (Arvicola  riparius). 

"The  wood  mouse  is  terrestrial,  like  the  other  members  of  the 
Arvicoline  series,  and  commonly  lives  in  burrows  in  the  ground. 
It  sometimes  makes  regular  runways  similar  to  those  of  the 
field  mouse,  but  usually  travels  freely  over  the  surface.  .  . 

"The  nest  of  the  red-backed  mouse  is  usually  in  this  [Adiron- 
dack] region,  placed  in  a  burrow  in  the  earth,  although  it  is 
sometimes  found  in  a  half  decayed  log  or  under  the  roots  of  a 
stump." — Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks,  p.  271. 


GENUS  ARVICOLA,  LACEPEDE. 

The  genus  is  employed  in  the  restricted  sense  as  indicated  by 
Coues. 

Size  moderate  or  rather  large;  form  stout  and  clumsy;  feet 
and  tail  short,  the  latter  densely  covered  with  hair.  Muzzle 
blunt  and  covered  with  fur,  except  the  small  nasal  pads.  The 
eyes  are  small,  and  situated  about  half  way  between  the  muzzle 
and  the  hidden  ears,  which  have  a  large  antitragus.  The  inci- 
sors are  not  grooved,  broad.  Molars  -§• — |,  prismatic;  the 
prisms  are  very  acute,  the  anterior  upper  one  having  five 
prisms,  of  which  one  is  anterior,  the  following  ones  arranged 
alternately  ;  the  middle  molar  has  four  prisms,  one  being  ante- 
rior and  two  exterior  ;  posterior  upper  molar  with  (apparently) 
four  to  seven  prisms,  the  variability  arising  from  the  greater 


198  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

or  less  subdivision  of  the  fourth  treffle.  The  anterior  lower 
molar  is  very  long  and  variously  formed,  the  anterior  prism 
being  more  or  less  complicated  r  the  middle  molar  has  four  or 
five  prisms,  the  last  being  transverse,  the  others  alternating; 
the  last  molar  consists  of  three  simple  prisms  in  a  series. 

The  skull  is  never  more  than  twice  as  long  as  broad.  Ante- 
rior palatal  foramina  very  short.  Nasals  short.  Coronoid 
process  extending  to  the  hight  of  the  condyle. 

The  four  American  subgenera  are  as  follows  : 

SUB  GENUS  MYONOMES,  RAFINESQUE. 

Back  upper  molar  with  two  external  triangles,  one  internal  triangle,  an 
anterior  loop,  and  a  posterior  crescent-like  figure  (this  with  some  vari- 
ability). Middle  upper  molar  with  two  internal  triangles.  Front  lower 
molar  with  three  internal  and  two  or  three  external  triangles.  Ears  covered 
by  fur,  rounded  ;  antitragus  well  developed.  Tail  longer  than  the  head. 
Sole  six-tuberculed  ;  claws  of  forefeet  small.  ?ize  and  fur  ordinary. 

1.  Arvicola  riparius  ORD. 

2.  Arvicola  borealis  RICH. 

3.  Arvicola  xanthognathus  LEACH. 

4.  Arvicola  richardsoni  AUD.  and  BACH. 

5.  Arvicola  longicaudatas  MERRIAM. 

SUBGENUS  CHILOTUS,  BAIRD. 

Back  upper  molar  with  oue  external  triangle  and  a  posterior  trefoil; 
anterior  lower  molar  with  three  inner  and  two  or  three  external  trian- 
gles. Ears  small,  orbicular,  helix  incurved  all  round.  Size  small.  Tail 
longer  than  head.  Claws  short.  Two  imperfectly  known  species  from 
the  Pacific  coast  and  one  from  Dakota. 

6.  Arvicola  oregonus  BACH. 

7.  Arvicola  pallidus  MERRIAM. 

8.  Ai'vicola  curtains  COUES. 

SUBGENUS  PEDOMYS,  BAIRD. 

Back  upper  molar  with  one  external  triangle ;  middle  upper  molar  with 
one  internal  triangle ;  front  lower  molar  with  two  internal  and  one  ex- 
ternal triangle.  Tail  about  equal  to  head.  Fore  claws  short.  Size  med- 
ium, fur  ordinary. 

9.  Arvicola  austerus  LE  CONTE. 

10.  Arvicola  minor  MERRIAM. 

SUBGENUS  PITYMYS,  McMuRT. 

Back  upper  molar  with  one  external  triangle  and  a  posterior  trefoil; 
middle  upper  molar  with  one  internal  triangle;  front  lower  molar  with 
two  internal  and  one  external  triangle.  Tail  shorter  than  head.  Fore 
claws  fossorial.  Size  small,  fur  mole-like. 

11.  Arvicola  pinetorum  LE  CONTE. 

12.  Arvicola  quasiater  COUES. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  199 


Arvicola  riparius  ORD. 

COMMON  MEADOW  MOUSE. 
(Plate  XII.) 

Mynomes pratensis  RAFINESQUE.    AID.  Month.  Mag.,  1817. 
Arvicola  pennsylvanica  ORD.    Guthrie's  Geogr.,  1815. 

WAGNER.    Suppl.  Schreber's  Sauget. 

SCHINZ.    Synopsis,  1845. 

AUD.  AND  BACH.    Quad.  N.  A.,  1849. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 
Arvicola  palustris  HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825. 
Arvicola  riparius  ORD.    Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1825. 

DEKAY.    Zool.  of  New  York,  1842. 

AUD.  AND  BACH.    Quad.  N.  A.,  1854. 

LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  America,  1857. 

GIEBEL.    Saugethiere,  1859. 

GODMAN.    Amer.  Nat.  Hist.,  1860. 

ALLEN.    Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.  No.  8. 
Arvicola  (Myonomes)  riparius  COLTES.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1874. 

COTJES  AND  YARROW.    Zool.  Expl.  W.  100th  Mer.,  1876. 

COUES.    Monogr.  N.  A.  Rodentia,  1877. 

Arvicola  riparius  longipilus  KENNICOTT.    Agric.  Rep.  U.  S.  Patent  Office 
for  1856. 

BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  Amer.,  1857. 
Hypudceus  riparius  MAXIMILIAN.    Arch.  Naturg.,  1862;    Verzeichniss    N. 

Amer.  Siiuget.,  1862. 

?Hypudceus  ochrogaster  WAGNER.    Schreber's  Sauget.,  iii. 
Arvicola  xanthognatha  HARLAN.    Fauna  Amer.,  1825. 

GODMAN.    Amer.  Nat.  Hist.,  1826. 

SAY.    Long's  Exped.  to  Rocky  Mts.,  1823. 

DEKAY.    Zool.  of  New  York,  1842. 

LINSLEY.    Amer.  Journ.  Sci.,  1842. 
Arvicola  alborufescens  EMMONS.    Rep.  Quad.  Mass.,  1840. 

DEKAY,  N.  Y.  Zool.  i,  1842. 
Arvicola  hirsutus  EMMONS.    DEKAY,  11.  cc. 
Arvicola  nasuta  BACHMAN.    Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1842. 

AUD.  AND  BACH.    LECONTE. 
Arvicola  oneida  DEKAY.    LECONTE,  11.  cc. 
Arvicola  rufescens  DfiKAY.    Zool.  New  York,  1842. 
Arvicola  occidentalis  PEALE.    Mam.  U.  S.  Expl.  Exped.,  1848. 

LECONTE,    AUD.  AND  BACH.,  BAIRD. 

Arvicola  montana  PEALE,  1.  c.,  AUD.  AND  BACH.,  BAIRD,  NKWBERRY. 
Arvicola  edax  LECONTE.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 

AUD.  AND  BACH.,  BAIRD. 

Arvicola  borealis  LECONTE.     Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1853. 
Arvicola  trowbridgei  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A .,  1857. 
Arvicola  longirostris  BAIRD.    NEWBERRY,  P.  R.  R.  Rep.,  1857. 
Arvicola  modesta  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Arvicola  rufidorsum  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Arvicola  breweri  BAIRD.    Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 


200 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


American  naturalists  are  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Coues  for 
the  very  complete  and  lucid  discussion  of  the  meadow  mice  of 
America,  particularly  as  respects  this  common  and  widely  dis- 
tributed species.  What  otherwise  would  have  been  a  mere 
suspicion,  or,  at  best,  a  moral  certainty,  is  by  him  placed  be- 
yond dispute — namely,  that  the  majority  of  the  innumerable 
species  related  to  A.  riparius  are  synonyms  pure  and  simple. 
The  difference  of  opinion  which  may  still  exist  as  to  the  specific 
validity  of  those  forms  which  show  tangible  differences,  will  be 
comprehensible,  and  will  be  founded  upon  different  interpreta- 
tions of  facts,  and  not  upon  the  misunderstanding  of  facts. 

Arvicola  riparius,  the  common  meadow  mouse,  is  perhaps 
the  most  abundant,  as  it  is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  our 
native  mice.  It  makes  its  home  in  the  weedy  corners  of  fields, 
along  hedge  rows,  in  the  close  grass  of  the  meadow — anywhere 
that  affords  shelter  and  access  to  its  food.  In  the  autumn 
it  leaves  its  summer  habitation  and  makes  a  new  domicile 
iji  the  corn  shocks  or  grain  stacks,  or  beneath  the  granaries 
adjoining,  showing  its  appreciation  of  the  thrifty  care  of  the 
farmer  by  helping  him  dispose  of  his  harvest.  The  farmer  boy 
enlivens  the  monotonous  task  of  corn  husking  by  a  merry 
scramble  after  the  furry  pilferers,  as  each  shock  is  removed, 
assisted,  it  may  be,  by  an  eager  terrier,  which  tears  the  large, 
spherical  nests  with  excited  haste. 

Allowing  for  great  local  or  accidental  variations,  the  follow- 
ing description  will  make  the  animal  recognizable  : 

Body  four  to  five  inches  long,  stout ;  members  small,  partic- 
ularly the  forefeet  and  tail ;  head  blunt.  The  forehead  is 
curved,  the  muzzle  very  blunt  and  furry,  the  eyes  small,  not 
prominent,  and  placed  about  half  way  between  the  nose  and 
ears.  The  ears  are  covered  with  hairs  on  both  sides,  and  do 
not  overtop  the  fur,  having  a  valve- like  antitragus  closing  the 
opening.  The  forefeet  are  small  and  are  employed  as  prehen- 
sile organs  extensively,  the  animal  naturally  supporting  itself, 
when  at  rest,  upon  the  hind  feet  almost  exclusively. 

The  proportions,  as  well  as  the  normal  size,  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  measurements,  which  will  be  found  to  be 
very  constant  in  adult  specimens  from  the  southern  part  of 
Minnesota: 


NUMBER. 

Trunk 

Tail. 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Nose 
to  ear. 

Hind 
foot. 

Fore 
foot. 

Spread  of 
hind  legs. 

Spread  of 
fore  legs. 

75.  (Male)  

4.00 

1.35 

0.50 

0.90 

0.70 

0.40 

3.9 

3.25 

76.  (Female)... 

4.30 

1.40 

0.45 

1.00 

0.70 

0.40 

4.1 

3.35 

MAMMALS  OF   MINNESOTA.  201 

The  ear  is  0.45-0. 50  high,  the  lower  incisor  0. 30,  upper  incisor 
0.20.  It  is  believed  that  there  is  normally  about  the  above- 
indicated  difference  between  males  and  females  of  the  same 
age  and  at  the  same  place.  The  above  were  chosen  because 
the  two  were  taken  under  circumstances  indicating  that  they 
were  a  pair.  In  autumn  the  averages  of  mice  collected  would 
be  quite  unreliable,  and  it  seems  quite  probable  that  more  than 
a  single  winter  is  necessary  to  the  attainment  of  the  full  size. 
However,  mice  collected  in  spring  about  Minneapolis  have 
proven  very  uniform  in  both  size  and  color.  A  very  large 
female,  collected  in  October,  1883,  measured  about  five  inches, 
with  a  tail  measuring  2.0,  hind  feet  0.75,  and  fore  feet  0.43. 

The  averages  of  114  specimens  of  this  species  from  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  as  given  by  Coues,  are  as  follows:  Trunk,  4.33; 
tail,  1.59;  hind  foot,  0.78. 

In  our  opinion  the  average  of  a  large  series  of  Minnesota 
specimens  would  be  considerably  less,  and  quite  obviously  so 
if  the  northern  part  of  the  state  were  represented. 

The  color  is  dark  brown  with  reddish  sifted  through  the 
pelage.  Usually  the  whole  back  from  the  nose  to  the  tail  is 
uniform  dark  brown,  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  being  some- 
what darker,  while  the  sides  of  the  body  are  appreciably 
warmer.  The  upper  surfaces  of  the  feet  are  brown,  also. 
Below  the  fur  is  ashy  white,  more  whitish  about  the  mouth. 
The  lower  surface  of  the  tail  is  more  or  less  distinctly  white. 
Winter  specimens  are  very  uniform  in  color,  and  there  is  no 
sexual  differentiation  as  in  Fiber.  The  vibrissso  are  short  and 
dark. 

The  range  of  this  species  is  very  extensive  yet  it  would 
seem  that  its  true  home  is  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  from  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  states  northward  to 
Labrador.  Farther  west  the  northern  limit  of  typical  Arvicola 
riparius  seems  to  lie  within  the  U.  S.  boundaries.  Although 
the  species  extends  westward  to  the  Pacific  it  tends  to  lose  its 
integrity  and  merges  in  varieties  of  greater  or  less  permanence. 
Northwardly  and  westerly  from  the  middle  of  Minnesota  the 
size  drops  rapidly  and  in  the  Red  River  valley  the  measure- 
ments are  never  up  to  the  average  of  the  type.  Still  farther 
north  it  would  seem  that  the  species  can  not  go  without  great 
difficulty  or  at  the  expense  of  much  of  its  normal  size.  It  here 
becomes  variety  borealis.  It  may  be  suggested  that  constant 
migrations  (after  the  analogy  of  the  migratory  habit  of  the 
-13 


202  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Lemmings)  tend  to  confuse  the  effect  of  climate,  in  which  case 
we  may  understand  why  variety  borealis  may  be  occasionally 
found  as  far  south  as  Moorhead,  Minnesota  (a  fact  not  hitherto 
reported)  and  why,  on  the  other  hand  almost  typical  riparius 
sometimes  reaches  Alaska.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  certain  that  this 
section  (Myonomes)  of  Arvicola  when  it  becomes  acclimated 
takes  on  the  characteristics  of  an  arctic  variety — this  our  ex- 
planation— with  larger  body  and  smaller  extremities.  This 
phase  constitutes  variety  xantliognailms  or  the  yellow  cheeked 
variety  of  Alaska  and  the  arctic  regions.  The  relative  size  of 
true  riparius  and  borealis  will  be  found  given  under  the  osteology 
of  the  latter.  (Anatomical  details  of  the  present  species  below. ) 

We  have  kept  specimens  of  the  meadow  mouse  in  confine- 
ment and  found  it  an  engaging  pet  easily  domesticated  and 
accommodating  itself  to  its  new  circumstances  well.  It  is  sur- 
prising how  little  the  fore  feet  are  used  in  its  daily  activities. 
Although  perhaps  less  amusing  than  the  white-footed  mouse 
in  confinement  it  is  sprightly  and  active.  The  sight  is  rather 
defective  and  the  senses  not  acute.  Its  food  consists  largely 
of  grasses  and  the  stomach  will  usually  be  found  full  of  green 
material  although  the  grain  is  also  highly  relished.  I  have 
been  able  to  detect  no  preference  between  the  various  cereals. 
Wheat  is  secured  in  the  field  by  cutting  the  halm  off  repeatedly 
until  the  ear  is  brought  within  reach.  The  meadow  mouse  is 
not  fossorial  strictly,  excavating  at  most  but  shallow  runs 
below  the  surface.  The  teeth  are  used  expertly  in  gnawing 
through  boards  if  a  light  is  seen  through,  but  not  so  much  so 
apparently  as  in  the  case  of  our  domestic  mice.  These  wild 
mice  are  very  fond  of  water,  lapping  it  eagerly  if  for  a  few 
hours  deprived  of  it.  They  are  also  very  neat  in  their  per- 
sonal habits.  They  fall  an  easy  prey  to  birds  of  prey  on 
account  of  their  imperfect  sight  but  would  otherwise  multiply 
very  rapidly.  They  like  well  on  sunny  afternoons  to  play  about, 
running  through  the  galleries  or  roads  they  have  made  through 
the  high  grass.  These  paths  lead  from  one  covert  to  another 
and  are  not  burrows  but  pass  under  roots  or  fallen  logs  or 
boards  or  brush  piles  and  are  beaten  smooth  by  constant  use. 
On  such  isolated  places  as  bushy  islands  in  the  middle  of  some 
river  they  become  numerous  and  venturesome. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  field  mice  are  now 
found  in  greater  numbers  than  elsewhere,  upon  the  low  grass- 
covered  islands  in  our  rivers,  where,  during  the  summer,  at 
least,  they  are  to  a  certain  extent,  exempt  from  forays  of 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  203 

domestic  cats  and  other  enemies.  In  such  places  their  nests 
may  be  found  in  almost  every  suitable  grass  tussock,  and  under 
fallen  trees  or  driftwood.  Such  islands  are,  of  course,  flooded 
during  a  short  period  in  spring,  and  these  freshets  are  times  of 
great  excitement  among  the  mice  which  have  domiciled  them- 
selves under  the  boards  and  riffraff  left  by  the  last  flood. 

In  April,  1885,  while  in  camp  upon  a  large  low  island  at  the 
head  of  lake  Pepin,  a  hard  storm  of  rain  and  snow  caused  a 
sudden  rise  in  the  river  of  nearly  fifteen  inches — sufficient,  at 
least,  to  flood  the  greater  part  of  the  island  and  float  away 
many  traps  set  for  mice  and  shrews  in  various  places.  Near 
the  tent  was  a  broad  bay  the  low  shores  of  which,  for  acres  in 
extent,  were  covered  with  driftwood,  which  furnished  conceal- 
ment for  innumerable  mice,  Arvicola  riparius.  When  the  river 
began  to  rise  the  water  oozed  beneath  the  boards,  and  before 
the  observer  was  really  aware  of  the  encroachment  of  the 
waters  the  whole  area  was  afloat. 

The  night  was  clear  and  moonlit,  and  as  we  stood  watching 
the  most  insidious  approach  of  the  waters,  wondering  if  we 
should  be  compelled  to  remove  our  camp,  we  were  astonished 
by  a  confused  rustle  and  murmur  not  unlike  that  produced  by 
the  wind  among  dry  leaves.  This  we  were  at  a  loss  to  account 
for  since  the  night  was  perfectly  still.  At  our  feet,  however, 
something  tangible  appeared  in  the  shape  of  a  group  of  mice 
fleeing  from  the  waters,  creeping  out  from  their  hiding  places, 
in  evident  alarm,  which  was  expressed  in  querulous  cries  as 
well  as  by  their  excited  and  uncertain  movements.  To  use  a 
common  expression,  the  whole  tract  was  "alive"  with  mice 
fleeing  for  their  lives  toward  the  higher  open  ground  behind. 
The  picture  was  that  of  the  Ohio  floods,  with  mice  rather  than 
men  as  actors,  and  furnished  an  illustration  apropos  of  Burns's 
lines,  "  The  best  laid  schemes  of  mice  and  men  gang  aft  agley." 
A  pair  of  great-horned  owls,  whose  nest  was  hard  by  may  have 
profited  more  by  this  unexpected  hegira  than  the  naturalists  of 
the  party  but,  presumably,  were  less  affected  by  its  novelty 
than  they. 

Arvicoia  riparius  var.  borealis  RICH. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  a  specimen  of  Arvicola  sent  us  by 
Prof.W.W.  Cooke,  of  Moorhead,  Minnesota,  with  the  measure- 
ments and  the  description  of  the  arctic  form  called  borealis  by 
Richardson.  This  specimen,  collected  March  15th,  1885, 


204  BULLETIN  NO     VII. 

although  received  in  too  poor  condition  to  be  preserved  or 
satisfactorily  studied,  attracted  attention  on  account  of  its 
obviously  reduced  size.  There  seemed  to  be  no  reason  to  sus- 
pect that  it  was  not  fully  mature,  while  its  measurements  ex- 
cluded it  from  normal  A.  riparius,  which,  except  in  the  matter 
of  size,  it  completely  resembled. 

Length  of  trunk,  3.50;  tail,  1.30;  sole,  0.70;  palm,  0.41;  nose 
to  eye,  0.40. 

In  the  absence  of  other  specimens  or  further  information  as 
to  the  presence  or  absence  of  normal  A.  riparius  in  the  North- 
western part  of  the  state  this  stands  as  an  isolated  case  of  little 
value,  except  as  it  may  direct  attention  to  this  question  whether 
we  have  a  permanent  boreal  variety  of  Arvicola  in  Minnesota; 

As  there  is  little  or  nothing  in  the  form  of  the  bones  of  A. 
borealis  to  distinguish  it  from  A.  riparius  proper,  the  follow- 
ing measurements  may  serve  to  indicate  the  proportions  of 
both  forms :  The  upper  number  (units  =  T^¥  inch)  in  each  case 
refers  to  A.  borealis,  the  lower  to  A.  riparius.  Total  length  of 
skull,  y9^,  (i.  e.  inborealis  0.9  in  riparius  1  inch);  zygomatic 
width  |f;  length  of  nasals,  ||;  length  of  temporals,  ff ;  medial 
length  of  parietals,  |£;  length  of  molar  series,  |f ;  length  of 
upper  incisors,  -^ ;  length  of  scapula,  f£;  length  of  humerus, 
ff;  length  of  radius,  ff;  longest  metacarpal,  ff;  pelvis,  f|; 
femur,  |f;  tibia,  f£;  free  portion  fibula,  j£;  longest  metatarsal, 
|f;  (It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  difference  in  size,  so  notic- 
able  in  all  other  measurements,  disappears  in  comparing  the 
length  of  bones  of  the  hand  and  foot,  although  the  size  in  other 
respects  is  greater  in  the  larger  animal).  The  seventeen  cau- 
dal vertebrae,  \%% .  The  number  of  caudal  vertebrae  seems  to 
be  the  same,  but  a  greater  diversity  in  size  is  exhibited  here 
than  elsewhere.  The  last  seventeen  vertebras  were  measured 
in  each  case. 

Arvicola  (Chilotus)  pal  I  id  us  MERRIAM. 

Quite  recently  Dr.  Merriam  has  described  from  Dakota  a 
species  of  the  subgenus  Chilotus,  which  may  yet  be  encoun- 
tered in  Minnesota.*  The  species  is  said  to  strikingly  differ 
from  the  other  known  North  American  species  of  Arvicola  in 
the  extreme  paleness  of  coloration  and  the  extreme  shortness 
of  tail. 

*C.  HART  MERRIAM.  Description  of  a  new  species  of  Field  Mouse  (Arvicola  pallidus) 
from  Dakota. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  205 

"General  Characters. — Size  medium,  nearly  equalling  that  of 
Arvicola  riparius  (average  total  length  of  four  specimens, 
126.25mm.)  Tail  very  short  (average  length  in  four  speci- 
mens, 23. 75  mm.  from  actual  base,  apparent  length  only  about 
18  mm.)  with  a  long  terminal  pencil.  Ears  medium,  thick, 
well  haired,  superior  border  inflexed,  giving  them  a  promi- 
nence not  seen  in  flat  ears  of  the  same  size;  antitragus  medium 
(smaller  than  in  A.  oregonus),  its  anterior  border  becoming  con- 
tinuous with  the  anterior  base  of  the  auricle,  thus  forming  a  low 
rim  in  front  of  the  meatus  as  in  A.  oregonus  and  Synaptomys 
cooper L  Fur  everywhere  long,  full  and  soft . 

"Color. — Upper  parts  every  where  uniform  pale,  buffy-gray, 
slightly  grizzled  by  the  admixture  of  black- tipped  hairs;  under 
parts  white,  the  plumbeous  color  of  the  base  showing  through 
in  places  on  the  belly;  tail  more  or  less  obscurely  bi-color." 

' 'Total  length— (1)  male,  124mm.;  (2)  female,  121  mm.;  (3) 
male,  133  mm.;  (4)  female,  127  mm.  Tail— (1)  25  mm.;  (2)  20 
mm.;  (3)  25mm.;  (4)  25  mm.  Hind  foot— (1)  18.25  mm.;  (3) 
18.7  mm.;  (4)  17.5mm." 

"Mr.  Bailey  states  that  "the  pallid  Arvicolas  seem  to  be  com- 
mon at  Fort  Buford.  They  show  a  decided  preference  for  the 
north  side  of  steep  hills.  I  have  not  found  them  on  the  south, 
southeast  or  southwest  sides.  The  only  reason  I  can  suggest 
for  this  distribution  is  that  the  twilight  (their  favorite  hour)  is 
longer  on  the  north  side.  The  hills  where  I  found  them  are 
all  steepest  on  the  north  side,  which  may  have  some  effect, 
though  there  seems  to  be  no  difference  in  the  vegetation  on 
different  sides."  "Their  food  seems  to  consist  largely  of  the 
flowers  of  certain  plants.  When  these  plants  grow  near  there 
are  usually  pieces  of  stems  and  blossoms  of  Liatris  graminifolia 
and  Artemisia  frigida  lying  about,  but  many  other  plants  and 
grasses  seem  to  be  eaten.  They  feed  largely  upon  the  seeds 
of  Eurotia  lanata.  Probably  the  bulbs  of  Liatris  graminifolia 
form  a  pa'rt  of  their  diet,  as  is  the  case  with  Arvicola  austerus." 
*  'I  have  caught  several  grasshopper  mice  (Onychomys  leucogaster) 
and  western  white-footed  mice  (Hesperomys  leucopus  sonoriensis) 
at  their  holes,  and  think  these  species  either  drive  out  the  Ar- 
vicolce  or  else  inhabit  the  old  holes."  They  are  found  on  the 
edge  of  the  "Bad  Lands"  and  from  the  fact  that  they  live  en- 
tirely in  the  hills  and  from  their  food  it  may  be  inferred  that 
their  habitat  is  the  "Bad  Lands." 


206  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

SUBGENUS  PEDOMYS,  BAIRD. 

Though  no  member  of  the  sub-genus  has  been  encountered 
in  the  progress  of  these  investigations,  it  is  certain  that  parts 
of  Minnesota  fall  within  the  range  of  P.  austerus  as  well  as, 
possibly,  of  P.  curtains. 

The  characters  given  by  Coues  are  as  follows: 
"Postero-superior  molar  with  an  anterior  transverse  loop, 
two  interior  triangles,  one  exterior  triangle,  and  a  posterior 
U  ,  V-,  or  Y-  shaped  loop  (as  in  Pitymys  and  Chilotus). 
Medio-superior  molar  with  an  anterior,  two  exterior,  and  only 
one  interior  triangle  (lacking  the  supplementary  postero-inter- 
ior  spur  or  triangle  of  Myonomes).  Antero-inferior  molar  with 
a  posterior  transverse  loop,  two  interior  closed  triangles,  one 
exterior  closed  triangle,  another  exterior  and  another  interior 
open  triangle,  and  an  anterior  irregular  trefoil.  *  *  Perfect 
plantar  tubercles  only  five." 

Arvicola  (Pedomys)  austerus  LEG. 

Very  similar  to  Arvicola  riparius  but  more  compactly  formed, 
and  with  harsher  pelage.  The  color  is  a  muddy  brown  above 
and  a  rusty  plumbeous  below;  four  inches  long;  tail  1.25;  hind 
foot  0.70. 

Since  writing  the  above,  Dr.  Merriam  has  described* 
a  new  variety  of  A.  austerus  differing  from  the  type  chiefly  in 
size  and  living  upon  the  upland  prairies.  This  mouse  was  first 
collected  by  Mr.  Vernon  Bailey,  chiefly  from  Dakota,  but  the 
range  also  includes  portions  of  western  Minnesota,  about  Orton- 
ville.  The  description  is  sab- joined. 

Arvicola  austerus  minor  MERRIAM. 

"Type  ||||,  male,  Merriam  collection.  From  Bottineau, 
Turtle  Mt,  Dakota,  Aug.  27,  1887. 

Description  of  Type. — Similar  to  Arvicola  austerus,  but  much 
smaller;  length  from  end  of  nose  to  tip  of  tail  vertebrae  (meas- 
ured in  the  flesh),  133  mm.;  tail  vertebrae,  36  mm.;  hind  foot, 
16. 5  mm. ;  ears  rather  prominent,  slightly  overtopping  the  fur. 

Color. — Upper  parts  uniform  grizzled  gray;  under  parts  whit- 
ish, washed  with  pale  cinnamon.  Viewed  from  behind,  looking 
away  from  the  light,  the  whole  head,  sides  and  back  appear  to 

*DR.  C.  HART  MERRIAM.  Description  of  a  New  Prairie  Meadow  Mouse  (Arvicola  aus- 
terus  minor)  from  Dakota  and  Minnesota.  American  Naturalist,  1888,  p.  598. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  207 

be  closely  lined  with  silvery.  The  fur  of  the  belly  is  plumbeous 
basally  and  nearly  white  apically.  There  is  no  sharp  line  of 
demarkation  between  the  color  of  the  sides  and  that  of  the 
belly.  Tail  bicolor,  the  light  color  of  the  under  surface  reach- 
ing well  up  on  the  sides." 

"Other  specimens  from  Elk  River  have  the  upper  parts 
strongly  suffused  with  brown,  and  the  belly  strongly  washed 
with  cinnamon,  while  in  others  the  under  parts  are  of  the 
'muddy  rust  color'  so  often  seen  in  true  austerus." 

GENUS  SYNAPTOMYS,  BAIRD. 

This  genus,  charcterized  by  Coues  as  ' '  the  most  remarkable 
genus  of  the  family,"  is  very  capricious  in  its  distribution  and 
thus  is  considered  very  rare. 

• '  Root  of  inferior  incisor  ending  abruptly  opposite  the  last 
lower  molar.  Faces  of  superior  incisors  longitudinally  grooved 
near  the  outer  edges.  Construction  of  molars  and  general 
cranial  characters  as  in  My  odes  (Lemmings);  palate  ending  as 
in  typical  Arvicola;  external  characters  as  in  Arvicola;  ears 
equaling  or  overtopping  the  fur;  tail  equal  to  or  longer  than 
the  hind  foot;  pelage  very  soft  and  full." 

Synaptomys  cooperi  BD. 

Myodes  ( Synaptomys)  cooperi,  BAIRD.    Cat.  in  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 
Synaptomys  cooperi,  BAIRD.     Mam.  N.  A.,  p.  558,  1857. 

COUES.    Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.,  1874;  Monogr. 
Amer.  Rodentia,  1877. 

QUICK  and  BUTLER.    Am.  Nat.,  Feb.,  1885. 

The  only  specimen  of  the  single  species  of  Synaptomys  as 
yet  found  in  Minnesota  was  collected  by  O.  E.  Garrison  in 
Benton  county  and  is  at  present  in  the  National  Museum 
(No.  10575).  The  pelage  is  described  as  very  soft  and  full, 
and  the  color  as  much  resembling  A.  riparius.  Messrs.  Quick 
and  Butler  have  given  the  following  information  regarding  the 
habits  of  this  interesting  species:  It  breeds  from  February  to 
December,  and  was  never  known  to  bring  forth  more  than  four 
young  at  one  time.  There  is  one  pair  of  pectoral  and  one  pair 
of  inguinal  mammae  (Coues  says  two  pairs  of  pectoral  and  one 
pair  of  inguinal).  In  color,  specimens  are,  as  a  rule,  darkest 
when  just  reaching  maturity.  The  nest  of  this  species  is  always 
under  cover,  generally  in  a  hollow  stump  or  log,  and  is  composed 


208  BULLETIN  NO.  VII. 

of  fine  grass.  It  is  not  so  securely  built  as  the  nests  of  some  of 
the  other  species  of  this  family.  Cooper's  mouse  lives  in  winter 
chiefly  upon  the  stems  of  blue  grass  and  the  more  tender  por- 
tions of  white  clover.  In  November,  1883,  a  large  quantity  of 
the  tuberous  roots  of  the  "Wild  Artichoke"  (Helianthus  doro- 
nicoides)  were  found  in  the  storehouses  of  a  colony  of  these 
mice. 

GENUS  ONYCHOMYS,  BAIRD. 
MOLE  MICE. 

This  genus  is  of  particular  interest  in  as  much  as  it  contains 
three  varieties  of  mice  which,  from  their  inaccessible  station 
and  secluded  habits  have  seldom  gained  admittance  to  natural 
history  museums  or  received  the  attention  of  naturalists.  This 
interest  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  genus  is  evidently 
very  closely  allied  to  Vesperimus  but  has  developed  in  a  direc- 
tion entirely  different  from  that  group  ;  and  its  species,  exter- 
nally and  in  habits,  vary  greatly  from  the  deer  mice.  Fossorial 
prairie  or  desert  animals  living  largely  on  insects  might  be 
expected  to  differ  greatly  from  such  saltatorial  and  gramnivor- 
ous  animals  as  Vesperimus  contains. 

The  mole  mice  are  distinguished  from  their  relatives  by  the 
compact  arvicoline  form,  short  tail  and  hind  legs,  well  de- 
veloped anterior  extremities  with  fossorial  claws,  and  the  soft 
mole-like  character  of  the  pelage.  The  hasty  observer  would 
refer  the  animal  to  Arvicolince  rather  than  to  the  sigmodont 
Murince ;  indeed  prince  Maximilian,  who  was  the  first  to  meet 
the  genus,  referred  the  0.  leucogaster  to  Hypudceus.  As  we 
have  specimens  of  none  of  the  genus  except  0.  leucogaster  var. 
pallidus  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  discussion  of  that  variety 
for  a  description  of  the  anatomical  peculiarities.  It  seems 
that,  in  view  of  the  many  points  of  divergence  in  structure  and 
habits,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  separating  the  mole 
mice  generically  from  Hesperomys. 

Onychomys  leucogaster  MAXIMILIAN. 

MISSOURI  MOLE-MOUSE. 

Hypudceus  leucogaster  MAXIMILIAN,  Reise  in  das  Innere  N.  America,  1841. 
Mus  missouriensis  AUDUBON  AND  BACHMAN,  Quad.  N.  A.,  1851. 
Hesperomys  (Onychomys)  leucogaster  BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 

COUES,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.Phila.,  1874;  Monogr.  N.  A. 

Rodentia,  1877. 
Hesperomys  leucogaster  MAXIMILIAN,  Arch.  f.  Naturg.  xviii,  1862. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  209 

The  single  species  thus  far  found  under  the  genus  Onychomys 
has  differentiated  into  three  more  or  less  distinct  geographi- 
cal races  or  varieties.  Of  these  but  one  is  found  in  Minnesota 
and  that  only  upon  the  western  boundary  and  a  very  short  dis- 
tance east  of  it. 

The  typical  form  is  stated  to  be  restricted  to  the  upper  Mis- 
souri river  region,  and  is  described  as  follows : 

"Color  above,  grayish-brown,  passing  into    yellowish-red, 
and  finally  into  a  stripe  of  fulvous  on  the  sides.     Feet,  inclu 
ding  outer  surface  of  the  forearm  and  under  surface  of  the  body 
and  tail,  white." — Baird. 

'•Beneath,  snow-white;  above,  mouse-brown,  with  darker 
dorsal  area.  Tail  twice  the  hind  foot  or  less  ;  much  less  than 
half  the  head  and  body.  Fore  foot  more  than  half  the  hind 
foot.  Ear  about  0.50  high." — Coues. 

' '  The  chief  distinguishing  feature  in  coloration,  as  compared 
with  Hespzromys  leucopus,  is  the  mostly  white  muzzle. — "Coues. 

The  following  measurements  from  No.  7492  of  the  national 
museum,  are  selected  as  fairly  illustrating  the  proportions  : 
Nose  to  tail,  4.25;  tail,  1.65;  hind  foot,  0.88;  fore  foot,  0.50; 
nose  to  eye,  0.60;  nose  to  ear,  1.00;  ear,  0.50.  The  skull  of  a 
somewhat  smaller  specimen  measured  1.07  (Coues). 


Onychomys  leucogaster  var.  torridus  COUES. 

Was  founded  upon  a  single  alcoholic  specimen  from  Arizona, 
which  differs  from  the  typical  form  of  the  species  in  having 
rather  larger  ears  and  tail  and  smaller  fore  feet.  The  colors 
are  warmer.  The  following  is  Dr.  Coues'  diagnosis  : 

"Beneath,  tawny- white  [?];  above  brownish  fulvous,  with  no 
darker  dorsal  area.  Tail  about  two  and  a  half  times  the  hind 
foot ;  almost  half  as  long  as  head  and  body.  Fore  foot  half  the 
hind  foot.  Ears  about  0.75  high." — Coues. 

Without  discussing  the  characters  on  which  this  variety  is 
founded,  we  may  remark  that  in  the  only  form  which  we  have 
seen,  the  proportional  length  of  the  tail  and  limbs  were  found 
to  be  subject  to  considerable  variation,  and  that  even  while  the 
exact  pattern  of  coloration  was  maintained.  Coues  gives  the 
following  measurements  of  the  specimen  described  :  ' '  Nose  to 
tail,  3.75  ;  tail,  2.00  ;  hind  foot,  0.80  .  fore  foot,  0.40  ;  nose  to  eye, 
0.50  ;  nose  to  ear,  0.95  ;  ear,  0.70. 


210  BULLETIN    NO.    VII. 


Onyehomys  leucogaster  var.  pallidus,  var.  n. 

O.  leucogaster  var.  pallidus  HEKRICK.     Thirteenth  Ann.  Rep.   Geol.  Nat. 
Hist.  Surv.  Minn.,  1884. 

This  variety  is  based  upon  a  series  collected  near  the  sources 
of  the  Minnesota  river  and  the  Bois  des  Sioux  river  in  Dakota, 
which  differs  so  completely  in  coloration  from  either  of  the 
above  varieties  as  to  be  entirely  incompatible  with  any  descrip- 
tion as  yet  given  of  O.  leucogaster,  while  at  the  same  time  pre- 
serving the  essential  characters  of  the  species. 

Upon  first  encountering  the  form  while  encamped  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Traverse,  the  writer  was  at  a  loss  to  classify 
his  find,  for,  in  coloration  and  form,  it  entirely  differed  from 
any  description  or  figure  known  to  him.  It  was  at  once  set 
down  as  an  Arvicola  on  the  strength  of  its  compact,  obtuse 
form  and  burrowing  habit,  although  the  large  ears  and  a  cer- 
tain vague  suggestion  in  the  appearance  hinted  at  Hesperomys. 
It  was  necessary  to  examine  the  teeth  before  conviction  was 
reached  that  we  had  to  do  with  a  Hesperomoid  type.  The  mole- 
like  appearance  and  habit  at  last  furnished  memory  with  the 
clue  and  we  recognized  our  capture  as  Onychomys. 

It  will  be  most  satisfactory  to  transcribe  the  description  made 
in  our  diary  from  the  recently  killed  specimen,  as  being  quite 
unprejudiced  by  thought  of  comparison  with  other  species. 

Description  of  No.  103,  collected  July  4,  1885:  "Color  no- 
where other  than  black  and  white  or  a  mixture  of  the  two. 
Base  of  fur  everywhere  ashy  gray;  above,  black  and  white 
most  intimately  mixed  so  as  to  produce  the  effect  of  a  whitish 
reflection  from  black  fur,  thus  resembling  a  mole.  On  the 
sides  the  white  tips  are  more  numerous  among  the  hairs,  so 
that  the  color  is  lighter,  but  the  fur  is  so  fine  that  the  pelage 
would  not  be  called  grizzled.  Under  parts  very  pure  delicate 
white  (soft  looking)  but  sparsely  sown  with  black-tipped  hairs. 
Soles  hairy.  Tail  not  distinctly  bi-color." 

There  is  a  dark  ring  about  the  eyes,  the  white  of  the  lower 
parts  embraces  the  lips  to  the  nostrils,  and  the  muzzle  is  hoary. 
The  lip  is  cleft  and  the  fur  about  this  cleft  is  long  and  hangs 
over  like  a  moustache.  The  fur  is  close  and  dense  about  the 
small  nasal  pads.  The  insides  and  rims  of  the  ears  are  silvery 
white.  The  tail  is  terete  and  very  closely  hairy,  except  at  the 
tip,  which  is  as  naked  as  in  Geomys,  and  is  gradually  reduced 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 


211 


in  size  from  the  middle  to  the  apex.  The  vibrissse  are  unusu- 
ally fine  and  long,  reaching  beyond  the  apex  of  the  ear,  and 
are  of  uncertain  color,  really  black,  but  so  polished  as  to  appear 
partly  white.  The  sole  is  very  densely  covered  with  fine  close 
hairs,  and  there  are  but  four  tubercles.  The  ears  vary  in  length, 
but  seem  to  be  intermediate  between  the  varieties  above  men- 
tioned. 

0.  pallidus  burrows  on  the  sandy  prairies  and  seems  to  be 
largely  diurnal  in  habit.  We  know  little  regarding  its  habits, 
but,  inasmuch  as  its  stomach  was  found  filled  with  the  remains 
of  grass-hoppers  and  other  insects,  we  are  justified  in  claiming 
that  the  suggestion  of  a  largely  insectivorous  diet  offered  by 
the  dentition  is  borne  out  by  actual  observation. 

The  coloration  must  be  influenced  by  the  constant  exposure 
which  a  chase  of  diurnal  insects  makes  necessary  upon  the 
open  plains;  and  the  short  and  nearly  naked  tail  are  suggestive 
of  the  fossorial  habits. 

The  following  table  gives  all  the  details  at  command  con- 
cerning the  proportions;  and  as  all  the  measurements  were 
made  with  great  care  upon  recently  killed  specimens,  may  be 
trusted  as  thoroughly  reliable.* 


No. 

Nose 
to  anus. 

Tail. 

Nose 
to  ear. 

Nose 
to  eye. 

Hind 
foot. 

Fore 
foot. 

Ear. 

Sex. 

103 
104 

4.60 
4.40 

1.45 
1.35 

1.08 
1  00 

0.60 
0.55 

0.90 
0  90 

0.55 

0.60 
0.50+ 

female, 
male. 

105 

3.95 

1.50 

1  00 

0  50 

0  80 

0.40 

male 

114 

4.15 

1.60 

0  92 

0  50 

0.85 

male 

115 

5.10 

1.60 

1.20 

0.60 

0  90 

0.50 



male. 

GENUS  FIBER,  CUVIER. 
Fiber  zibethicus  (L.)  Cuv. 

MUSKRAT. 

Figs.  12  and  13. 

The  muskrat  is  the  largest  of  the  mice  and  is  typically  arvi- 
coline,  differing  chiefly  in  those  modifications  correlated  with 
its  aquatic  habits. 

The  dentition  is  moderately  individualized.  The  upper  in- 
cisors are  semicircular  with  plane  outer  surface.  The  first 

*It  should  be  said  that  Dr.  Merriam.  who  has  examined  the  types  of  this  species  in 
the  National  Museum,  considers  the  present  variety  identical  with  the  type.  In 
this  case  the  published  descriptions  obviously  require  revision. 


212  BULLETIN   NO.    VJI. 

upper  molar  has  an  anterior,  two  interior  and  two  exterior 
triangles;  second  molar  with  an  anterior,  interior  and  two  ex- 
terior triangles;  back  molar  with  an  anterior,  interior,  and 
exterior  triangle,  and  a  posterior  V-shaped  treffle. 

The  following  notes  derived  from  the  Bulletin  of  Denison 
University,  vol.  vi,  were  printed  under  the  title  Biological  Notes 
upon  Fiber,  Geomys  and  Erethyzon,  by  C.  L.  and  C.  Judson 
Herrick: 

The  muskrat,  Fiber  zibethicus,  is  sufficiently  well-known  to 
every  one,  and  yet  perhaps  few  are  aware  of  the  extent  to  which 
the  animal  adapts  itself  to  the  varying  conditions  of  its  envi- 
ronment. One  who  casually  learned  to  know  the  water  rat  in 
one  of  our  western  states  might  pass  many  years  in  Ohio  with- 
out recognizing  the  fact  that  the  same  animal  abounds  in  Ohio, 
and  under  the  changed  conditions  here  prevailing  adopts  an 
almost  wholly  different  method  of  life.  It  would  be  more  accu- 
rate to  say  that  in  the  cold  Northwest,  with  its  luxus  of  small 
lakes  and  marshes,  the  monotonous  career  of  the  animal  expands 
in  conformity  with  the  greater  variety  of  aquatic  stations. 

The  muskrat  is  a  truly  arvicoline  rodent,  that  is,  its  affinities 
are  with  the  field  mice  rather  than  with  ihe  jumping  mice 
(Hesperomys)  or  oriental  rats  and  mice  (Mus).  Though,  at  first 
sight,  very  different  from  Arvicola,  the  chief  differences  in 
Fiber  are  such  as  are  obviously  adapted  to  aquatic  habit. 
The  long,  laterally  flattened,  scaly  and  naked  tail,  small  ears, 
obliquely  set  and  fringed  hind  feet  with  webbed  toes  are  all 
modifications  induced  by  accommodation  to  aquatic  habit. 
The  dark  brown  fur  is  long,  with  a  liberal  admixture  of  long, 
stiff,  glossy  hairs  of  a  darker  color  than  the  rest.  The  color 
and  texture  varies  with  the  season,  and  in  early  summer  rats 
may  be  found  with  a  curiously  tufted  or  mottled  pelage.  There 
are  six  mammas  and  strongly-developed  perineal  glands  which 
are  responsible  for  the  peculiar  musky  odor  implied  by  the 
name.  'The  secretion  is  often  used  by  trappers  for  the  more  ex- 
pensive castoreum  in  preparing  "scent"  used  in  baiting  traps. 

As  already  indicated,  the  habits  of  the  muskrat  are  subject 
to  considerable  variation.  Its  usual  home  is  a  long  burrow 
opening  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  and  passing  many 
yards  into  the  bank,  terminating  in  a  cosy  nest  beneath  the 
protecting  roots  of  a  tree.  It  is  here  that  young  are  reared  and 
from  these  burrows  the  entire  family  may  be  seen  emerging  at 
twilight  to  engage  in  swimming  races,  games  of  tag  and  sport- 
ive contests  upon  the  surface  of  the  stream.  The  head  and 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  213 

rudder-like  tail  alone  project  above  the  surface,  and  the  long 
V-like  diverging  ripples  which  are  created  by  the  rapid  swim- 
mer soon  span  the  entire  stream  and  stand  out  in  bold  relief  as 
they  catch  the  sky  tints  at  sunset.  In  regions  not  frequented 
by  man  or  sufficiently  protected  by  trees  long  run  ways  may 
be  traced  from  these  burrows  into  neighboring  meadows  or 
wheat  fields.  The  family  is  large  and  the  appetite  is  extensive 
if  not  critical.  Almost  anything  of  a  vegetable  nature  will  be 
tolerated,  but  the  corn-like  roots  of  rushes  and  the  rhizomes  of 
the  water  lily  as  well  as  flag  roots  are  relished.  The  frantic 
and  grotesque  haste  with  which  the  rat  when  disturbed  rushes 
down  the  runway  toward  the  water,  oblivious  to  any  obstacle, 
is  very  amusing  and  sometimes  startling,  and  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  stories  of  fierce  onslaughts  upon  man.  Young-man  - 
afraid-of -his- shadow  might  readily  consider  himself  beset  as 
the  excited  rat  comes  crashing  down  his  path  regardless  of 
everything  but  his  destination.  Nevertheless,  there  seems  to 
be  considerable  evidence  that  old  "rogue"  rats  are  decidedly 
irascible,  and  a  worried  mother  rat  may  overstep  the  bounds  of 
etiquette  in  defense  of  her  young.  The  burrowing  habits  of 
the  rat  associate  him  with  the  cray-fish  and  other  enemies  of 
canals  and  dams.  Even  in  the  vicinity  of  a  large  city  like  Cin- 
cinnati large  numbers  are  annually  taken  in  the  canal  banks 
for  their  skins,  which,  when  in  prime  condition,  bring  15  to  18 
cents. 

The  comparatively  simple  domicile  above  described  is  ade- 
quate for  the  southern  states  and  flowing  waters,  but  in  Wis- 
consin and  Minnesota  the  conditions  are  very  different.  Nearly 
every  quarter  section  has  its  small  lake  or  pond,  and  these 
pools  are  shallow  and  mostly  filled  with  weeds.  Here  the 
muskrat  finds  congenial  resorts.  Even  in  the  bleak  prairies 
the  sloughs  and  ponds  fairly  swarm  with  these  furry  denizens. 
Here  the  intense  cold  of  winter  freezes  all  standing  water  to  a 
depth  of  over  four  feet,  so  that  the  openings  of  the  summer  homes 
of  the  rat  are  sealed  for  four  or  five  months  and  he  is  forced  to 
construct  a  building  suited  to  the  seeming  infelicitous  and  con- 
flicting conditions.  The  house  must  extend  above  water  to  ad- 
mit air;  it  must  be  deeply  buried  from  the  cold;  it  must  connect 
with  the  water;  it  must  contain  food;  the  food  should  be  grow- 
ing or  fresh;  the  house  should  afford  protection  from  enemies 
and  escape  when  attacked. 

The  solution  of  these  problems  might  tax  the  ingenuity  of 
the  ablest  mind,  yet  nature,  by  the  use  of  the  simplest  ma- 


214  BULLETIN   NO.  VII. 

terials  under  the  guidance  of  natural  selection,  has  solved 
every  one.  Let  us  watch  the  process,  and,  I  doubt  not,  learn 
a  lesson  of  skill  and  patience.  The  situation  is  a  shallow  pool 
which  is  destined  to  freeze  nearly  solid.  It  is  grown  up  with 
rushes  and  NupJiar  or  spatter  dock,  two  plants  which  play  an 
important  part  in  the  domestic  economy  of  this  animal,  supply  - 
him  at  once  with  food  and  building  materials. 

In  the  placid  days  of  early  autumn  a  pair  of  muskrats  may  be 
seen  diving  to  the  bottom  and  tugging  and  biting  at  the  roots 
of  the  rush.  After  tearing  them  off,  the  rat  collects  four  or 
five  of  the  rushes,  say  four  feet  long,  and  swims  with  them  to 
a  spot  selected  over  the  deepest  part  of  the  pool.  Here  they 
are  arranged  in  parallel  order  and  carefully  straightened. 
Then  another  mouthful  is  brought  and  placed  across  the  first 
at  right  angles.  The  angles  are  bisected  by  other  clusters 
until  a  circular  raft  is  formed  sufficiently  strong  to  support  the 
weight  of  the  animal.  Now  the  colony  of  rats  sets  at  work  in 
earnest.  And  all  day  long  one  or  more  rats  may  be  seen  on  the 
platform  apparently  eating  rushes.  Closer  inspection  shows 
that  they  are  biting  rushes  into  short  lengths  to  form  the 
"filling"  of  the  structure.  The  accumulation  increases  and 
its  weight  causes  the  raft  to  sink  and  a  new  series  of  long 
rushes  is  added.  Thus  repeatedly  until  sufficient  material  has 
been  accumulated  to  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the  pond.  All  the 
previous  weeks  the  rats  seemed  to  make  little  progress,  as  the 
material  sank  as  fast  as  lifted  much  above  the  surface.  Dur- 
ing the  early  stages  a  strong  wind  may  ruin  the  work  of  weeks, 
but  the  rats  are  never  discouraged. 


Fig.  12.    Section  of  muskrat  hut. 

So  far  only  vegetable  matter  has  entered  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  hut,  but  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  rise  permanently 
above  the  water  there  is  a  change  of  method  and  the  whole 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  215 

space  about  the  lodge  is  cleared  of  vegetation.  The  rats  dive 
to  the  bottom  and  pull  up  the  rushes  and  water- lillies  by  the 
roots  and  build  them  into  the  structure  with  large  masses  of 
earth  adhering.  The  bottom  is  deepened  and  thus  the  danger 
of  freezing  solid  is  obviated.  The  earth  is  used  in  plastering 
the  outside  of  the  hut,  though  this  is  not  systematically  done. 
A  curious  habit  we  have  occasionally  observed  is  the  thatching 
of  the  hut  with  the  large  water-lily  leaves  so  overlapped  and 
cemented  with  mud  as  to  form  an  impervious  roof.  By  this 
time  the  ice  is  beginning  to  form  and  the  hut  has  settled  as 
much  as  it  will,  being  buoyed  up  by  the  ice.  The  rats  now 
burrow  into  the  house  from  near  the  bottom  forming  a  passage 
in  the  form  of  a  letter  U  inverted,  the  uppermost  part  being 
above  the  water  level  and  here  a  small  chamber  is  excavated. 
Run-ways  are  excavated  beneath  the  ice  to  various  parts  of  the 
pond.  In  the  long  excursions  undertaken  beneath  the  ice  the 
rats  are  said  to  ascend  to  the  ice  and  exhaust  the  lungs,  per- 
mitting the  expired  air  to  absorb  oxygen  and  then  reinspire  it. 
This  we  have  never  been  able  to  observe.  The  roots  of  NupJiar 
are  built  into  the  house  or  are  stored  conveniently  near  for 
winter  use.  The  great  mass  of  vegetable  matter  soon  begins 
to  "heat,"  generating  warmth  enough  not  only  to  add  to  the 
comfort  of  the  occupants  of  this  curious  home,  but  to  cause 
new  sprouts  to  spring  from  the  roots.  The  chamber  is  en- 
larged during  the  winter  and  the  part  removed  serves  to  supply 
food  in  case  of  outside  famine.  The  outer  layer  of  mud  freezes 
solid  and  forms  an  adequate  defense  against  the  wolves  which 


Fig.  13.    Muskrat  houses. 


216  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

might  otherwise  wage  a  war  of  extermination.  There  see  ms 
to  be  a  certain  reciprocity  between  the  occupants  of  adjacent 
lodges,  although  the  rats  are  jealous  by  nature  and  have  not 
the  communistic  characters  of  the  beaver,  though  no  whit  in- 
ferior to  them  as  architects. 

As  to  the  statement  commonly  believed  by  woodcraf tsmen  in 
the  west  that  the  muskrat  prearranges  his  hut  in  view  of  the 
length  and  severity  of  the  coming  winter  we  can  offer  nothing 
definitely.  There  is,  however,  a  wide  variation  in  respect  to 
the  size  and  structure  of  the  huts  and  a  general  correspon- 
dence, though  by  no  means  a  universal  one,  between  the  huts 
built  during  a  given  season.  An  average  hut  is  6x10  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  water's  edge  and  the  size  of  the  chamber  varies 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  the  curious  state- 
ment of  Carver  as  to  the  winter  habits  of  this  animal  (p.  425 
Carvers  Travels. ) 

"The  muskrat  is  so  termed  for  the  exquisite  musk  which  it 
affords.  It  appears  to  be  a  diminutive  of  the  beaver,  being 
endowed  with  all  the  properties  of  that  sagacious  animal,  and 
wants  nothing  but  size  and  strength,  being  not  much  bigger 
than  a  large  rat  of  the  Norway  breed,  to  rival  the  creature  it 
so  much  resembles. 

*  'Like  the  beaver  it  builds  itself  a  cabin,  but  of  less  perfect 
construction,  and  takes  up  its  abode  near  the  side  of  some 
piece  of  water.  In  the  spring  they  leave  their  retreats,  and  in 
pairs  subsist  on  leaves  and  roots  till  the  summer  comes  on, 
when  they  feed  on  strawberries,  raspberries  and  such  other 
fruits  as  they  can  reach.  At  the  approach  of  winter  they  sep- 
arate, when  each  takes  up  its  lodging  apart  by  itself  in  some 
hollow  of  a  tree,  where  they  remain  quite  unprovided  with 
food,  and  there  is  the  greatest  reason  to  believe,  subsist  with- 
out any  till  the  return  of  spring." 

The  feats  performed  by  muskrats  in  opening  and  devouring 
mussels  may  be,  as  claimed  by  some  observers  mythical  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  they  avail  themselves  of  ani- 
mal food  upon  occasion. 

"Just  before  night  we  saw  a  musquash,  the  only  one  we  saw 
in  this  voyage.  The  Indian,  wishing  to  get  one  to  eat,  hushed 
us,  saying,  'stop,  me  call  'em';  and  sitting  flat  on  the  bank,  he 
began  to  make  a  curious  squeaking,  wiry  sound  with  his  lips, 
exerting  himself  considerably.  *  *  •*  It  was  evident  that  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  calling  the  musquash  to  him,  as  he  said. 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA.  217 

An  acquaintance  of  mine  after  this  tells  me  that  his  Indian,  in 
this  way  repeatedly  called  the  musquash  within  reach  of  his 
paddle  in  the  moonlight,  and  struck  at  them." — Thoreau.  The 
Maine  Woods,  p.  211. 

FAMILY  DIPODID^E. 

This  is  an  interesting,  though  not  a  large,  family  containing 
five  genera  of  springing  mice  distributed  over  widely  separated 
regions  of  the  earth.  The  three  subdivisions  included  under 
this  head  are  so  diverse  that  there  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  their  relative  rank.  The  affinities  assumed  for 
the  animals  included  in  them  are  borne  out  by  external  resem- 
blances more  fully  than  by  anatomical  structure.  Alston  gives 
the  following  diagnosis  of  the  family  :  ' '  Incisors  compressed. 
Premolars  present  or  absent.  Grinding  teeth  rooted  or  root- 
less, not  tuberculate,  with  more  or  fewer  transverse  enamel - 
folds.  Skull  with  the  brain-case  short  and  broad,  infraorbital 
opening  rounded  (often  as  large  as  the  orbit) ;  zygomatic  arch 
slender;  curved  downward  ;  the  malar  ascending  in  front  to  the 
lachrymal  in  a  flattened  perpendicular  plate  ;  facial  surface  of 
the  maxillaries  minutely  perforated  ;  mastoid  portion  of  the 
auditory  bullas  usually  greatly  developed.  Metatarsal  bones 
greatly  elongated,  often  fused  into  a  cannon-bone.  Form  slen- 
der ;  front  portion  of  the  body  and  fore  limbs  very  small ;  hind 
limbs  long  and  strong,  with  from  three  to  five  digits ;  tail 
long,  hairy." 

Three  subfamilies,  viz  :  (Jaculince=)  1.  Zapodince,  2.  Dipo- 
dince,  and  3.  Pedetince.  The  last  named  departs  most  from  the 
murine  or  mouse-like  character,  and  contains  a  single  genus 
and  species  found  in  South  Africa.  The  animal  is  figured  at 
the  left  in  the  headpiece  to  Rodentia.  It  is  of  nearly  the  size 
of  a  rabbit,  and  but  for  the  long  and  densely  hairy  tail,  would 
much  resemble  one.  The  fore  feet  are  rather  larger  than  those 
of  allied  forms,  while  the  nails  upon  the  posterior  extremities 
are  almost  hoofs.  The  cervical  vertebras  are  free  as  are  the 
metatarsals. 

The  Dipodince  form  three  genera,  Dipus,  Aladaga  and  Platy- 
cercomys. 

The  first  named  genus  contains  the  jumping  mice  of  Europe 
and  northern  Africa,  while  the  second  inhabits  the  steppes  of 
Asia  and  European  Russia.  These  animals  have  the  cervicals 

-14 


218  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

more  or  less  anchylosed,  and  the  metatarsals  fused  to  form  a 
so-called  cannon-bone.  The  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the  end. 
Lastly  we  come  to  the 

SUBFAMILY  ZAJPODINJE. 

One  species  is  the  sole  representative  of  this  group,  which  by 
Coues  is  made  a  distinct  family.  This  species  ranges  over  a 
considerable  portion  of  North  America,  and  has  been  quite 
elaborately  discussed  by  recent  authors,  so  that  we  may  simply 
note  the  characters  of  the  subfamily  before  passing  to  the  de- 
scription of  the  animal  itself  : 

Dental  formula:  1:#:  fci=l8.  Upper  incisors  compressed,  sul- 
cate  ;  molars  rooted.  Head  short  and  rounded.  Anteorbital 
foramen  large.  Malar  bone  produced  anteriorly,  uniting  with 
the  lachrymal.  The  zygoma  is  slender  and  depressed.  Fore 
feet  small;  hind  feet  enlarged,  but  normal.  Tail  very  long  but 
not  tufted. 

GENUS  ZAPUS,  COUES. 
Zap  us  hudsonius  (ZIMMERMAN)  COUES. 

This  jumping  mouse  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  our 
Minnesota  rodents.  The  greatly  elongated  foot  in  which, 
nevertheless,  the  bones  are  all  distinct,  the  long  tail,  greatly 
exceeding  the  body,  the  enormous  ears  with  valvular  flaps,  and 
the  cheek  pouches  constitute  unique  characters. 

The  average  length  is  3  inches,  tail  5  inches,  hind  foot  1.18 
inches.  The  hinder  parts  of  the  body  are  enlarged,  while  the 
truncate  muzzle  gives  the  profile  a  peculiar  appearance.  The 
pelage  is  coarse  and  the  tail  is  like  that  of  the  common  mouse. 
The  color  above  is  of  a  rather  intense  yellowish  cast  with  a 
brownish  dorsally;  pencilings  of  brownish-black  due  to  the 
elongated  hairs  shade  the  back.  The  under  parts  are  beauti- 
fully white,  sharply  set  off  from  the  coloration  of  the  back. 
The  species  has  only  been  observed  by  the  writer  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  state.  At  Lake  Traverse  it  was  found  in  a  state 
of  primitive  simplicity,  and  was  readily  taken  in  the  hand. 

An  article  in  the  American  Naturalist  for  June,  1872,  by  San- 
born  Tenney,  affords  the  following  facts  regarding  the  hiber- 
nation of  the  Zapus: 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  219 

"On  the  18th  of  January  of  the  present  year  (1872),  I  went 
with  Dr.  A.  Patton,  of  Vincennes,  Indiana,  to  visit  a  mound 
situated  about  a  mile  or  a  mile  and  a-half  in  an  easterly  direction 
from  Vincennes.  While  digging  in  the  mound  in  search  of 
relics  that  might  throw  light  upon  its  origin  and  history,  we 
came  to  a  nest  about  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
carefully  made  of  bits  of  grass,  and  in  this  nest  was  a  jumping 
mouse  (Jaculus  hudsonius  Bd.;  apparently  dead.  It  was  coiled 
up  as  tightly  as  it  could  be,  the  nose  being  placed  upon  the 
belly,  and  the  long  tail  coiled  around  the  ball-like  form  which 
the  animal  had  assumed.  I  took  the  little  mouse  into  my  hand. 
It  exhibited  no  motion  or  sign  of  life.  Its  eyes  and  mouth  were 
shut  tight,  and  its  little  fore  feet  were  shut  and  placed  close 
together.  Everything  indicated  that  the  mouse  was  perfectly 
dead,  excepting  the  fact  that  it  was  not  as  rigid  as  perhaps  a 
dead  mouse  would  be  in  the  winter.  I  tied  the  mouse  and  nest 
in  my  handkerchief  and  carried  them  to  Vincennes.  Arriving 
at  Dr.  Patton's  office  I  untied  my  treasures  and  took  out  the 
mouse  and  held  it  for  some  time  in  my  hand.  It  still  showed 
no  signs  of  life;  but,  at  length  I  thought  I  saw  a  very  slight 
movement  in  one  of  the  hind  legs.  Presently  there  was  a  very 
slight  movement  of  the  head,  yet  so  feeble  that  one  could 
hardly  be  sure  it  was  real.  Then  there  came  to  be  some  evi- 
dence of  breathing,  and  a  slight  pressure  of  my  fingers  upon 
the  tail  near  the  body  was  followed  by  an  immediate  but  feeble 
movement  of  one  of  the  hind  legs  At  length  there  was  unmis- 
takable evidence  that  the  animal  was  breathing,  but  the  breath- 
ing was  a  labored  action,  and  seemingly  performed  with  great 
difficulty.  As  the  mouse  became  warmer  the  signs  of  life  be- 
came more  and  more  marked;  and  in  the  course  of  the  same 
afternoon  on  which  I  brought  it  into  the  warm  room  it  became 
perfectly  active,  and  was  as  ready  to  jump  about  as  any  other 
member  of  its  species.  I  put  this  mouse  in  a  little  tin  box  with 
holes  in  the  cover,  and  took  him  with  me  in  my  journey  ings, 
taking  care  to  put  in  the  box  a  portion  of  an  ear  of  corn  and 
pieces  of  paper.  It  ate  the  corn  by  gnawing  from  the  outside 
of  the  kernel,  and  it  gnawed  the  paper  into  bits  with  which  it 
made  a  nest.  *  *  *  On  the  evening  of  February  6th  I 
reached  my  home  in  Williamstown,  and  on  my  arrival  the 
mouse  was  in  good  condition;  but  the  next  morning  it  was  again 
apparently  dead.  In  the  course  of  the  day,  however,  being 
placed  where  it  was  warm,  it  gradually  came  back  to  activity 
as  before." 


220  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

"Mr.  Slade  says*:  'The  long-tailed  jumping  mouse  inhabits 
high  land  or  low  land,  forest  or  pasture,  cultivated  field  or 
swamp,  and  appears  to  be  equally  at  home  in  either,  and  num- 
erous in  any  situation.  It  possesses  a  momentary  agility 
second  to  no  other  rodent,  and  a  muscular  strength  of  enor- 
mous power  for  so  small  a  creature.  When  suddenly  disturbed 
it  often  moves  away  in  a  direct  line,  the  first  three  or  four  leaps 
being  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length;  but  these  distances  rapidly 
decline  to  about  four  feet,  which  are  continued  until  it  con- 
siders itself  out  of  danger.  This  is  not  always  the  case  for  it 
frequently  takes  an  irregular  course  and  jumps  at  diverse  an- 
gles for  several  successive  leaps.  *  *  *  It  feeds  upon  the 
buds,  leaves  and  twigs  of  many  kinds  of  plants,  upon  seeds, 
grain,  wild  berries,  chestnuts,  acorns,  grass,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent, upon  the  bark  of  shrubs.  *  *  *  As  a  rule,  three  lit- 
ters are  produced  in  a  season,  each  consisting  of  from  two  to 
four  young." 


FAMILY  GEOMYIDJE.- 

POUCHED  OR  POCKET-GOPHERS. 

The  pouched  rats  are  among  the  most  interesting  and  pecu- 
liar of  North  American  mammals  and  from  their  secluded 
habits  are  seldom  seen.  They  have,  however,  considerable 
economic  importance,  as  their  insidious  and  undisturbed 
forays  upon  gardens  and  orchards  render  them  more  obnox- 
ious than  more  open  foes.  From  their  habits  unlikely  to  spread 
rapidly,  they  multiply  in  favorable  localities  to  an  incredible 
extent  and  miles  of  meadow  land  are  honeycombed  by  their 
burrows.  For  the  same  reason  they  are  somewhat  arbitrarily 
distributed. 

From  the  fact  that  the  few  species  are  so  similar,  and  closely 
allied  geographical  races  so  numerous,  it  might  be  inferred 
that  the  group,  as  at  present  found,  is  of  a  comparatively 
recent  origin  and  that  its  different  members  are  diverging  from 
a  common  centre  west  of  the  Mississippi.  To  this  it  might  be 
replied  that  subterranean,  like  subaqueous,  species  are  subject 
to  slower  changes  than  those  more  directly  influenced  by  cli- 
mate, etc.  However  this  may  be,  the  family  is  distributed  over 
the  western  part  of  the  United  States  and  ranges  southward 
into  Mexico.  The  eastward  range  is  little  beyond  the  states 

*Merriam's  Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks,  p.  292. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  221 

bordering  upon  the  Mississippi  river  except  southwardly,  where 
a  variety  of  our  common  Geomys  bursarius  extends  into  Florida 
and  Georgia  and  was  the  first  of  the  family  found  in  the  United 
States  though  a  different  species  was  previously  noticed  in 
Mexico.  The  northern  limits  of  the  family  are  determined  by 
the  frosts  of  winter,  for  burrowing  becomes  an  arduous  task 
where  much  of  the  time  the  soil  is  frozen  six  or  more  feet  deep. 

In  the  New  England  and  Middle  States  the  family  is  entirely 
absent. 

These  low-bodied,  dense-furred  animals  are  chiefly  remarka- 
ble for  the  large  fur  lined  pockets  extending  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  sides  of  the  mouth  and  opening  entirely  outside  the 
buccal  cavity.  The  pockets  have  several  special  muscles  to 
retain  them  in  place.  The  pockets  are  used  for  carrying  food, 
which  in  all  the  species,  is  stored  in  subterranean  graneries 
against  time  of  drought  or  winter  frosts.  Considerable  skill  is 
shown  in  collecting  the  proper  amount  in  one  place,  so  that 
the  heat  generated  in  a  mass  of  grass,  for  example,  shall  be 
enough  to  cause  the  growth  of  fresh  shoots  but  not  enough  to 
destroy  the  whole. 

As  now  understood  the  pocket-gophers  constitute  a  well  cir- 
cumscribed family  of  two  genera,  allied,  on  the  one  hand,  to 
the  field  mice  (Arvicolidce)  by  many  important  cranial  and 
other  characters  and,  on  the  other  to  the  pouched  mice  (Saccom- 
yidce)  by  the  possession  of  fur- lined  pouches  on  either  side  of 
the  mouth  (but  having  no  connection  with  the  mucous  surfaces). 
Again,  the  gophers  are  allied  by  quite  unmistakable  points  of 
agreement  with  the  African  mole  rats  (Georychidce)  which  in 
habits  they  more  resemble  than  either  of  the  above  families.  If 
it  were  pertinent  in  such  a  work  as  this  to  discuss  the  relative 
value  of  these  different  affinities,  it  might  be  shown  that  a  very 
good  case  could  be  made  in  favor  of  a  closer  relationship  with  the 
Georychidce,  or  Muridce  than  with  the  Saccomyidce.  After  a 
comparison  of  cranial  characters  between  Fiber  the  Sac- 
comyidce and  Geomys  it  seems  well  to  suggest  that  the  presence 
oj  absence  of  external  pockets  ought  not  to  be  too  implicitly 
relied  upon  in  collocating  the  families  of  rodents. 

It  is  only  safe  to  say  at  present  that  the  Geomyidce  constitute 
a  distinct  family  of  myomorphic  rodents  with  uncertain  inter- 
ordinal  affinities.  No  definition  of  the  family  is  necessary  in 
this  connection,  but  the  student  is  referred  to  the  following 
papers  on  the  group  : 


222  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

COUES,  E.,  Monographs  of  N.  A.  Rodentia,  Geomyidae. 

COUES,  E.,          do          Saccomyidas  (Introduction— 

COUES,  E.,  Exploration  of   Colorado    river,    Part  iii,  Chapter   xii— Ab- 

tract  of  results  of  a  study  of  the  genera  Geomys  a  ad  Thomomys. 
COUES,  E.,  The  cranial  and  dental  characters  of  Geomyidae.     From  the 

Bull.  U.  S.  Geol.  and  Geogr.  Surv.,  1875. 
LICHTENSTEIN,  K.  W.  H.,  Ueber  aeussere  Backentashen  on  l>agethieren. 

Koengl.  Akad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1825. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  family  may  also  be  gathered 
from  what  is  said  of  the  one  species  which  comes  especially 
under  consideration  here. 

GENUS  GEOMYS,  RAF. 

This  genus  contains  four  species  which  occupy  a  belt  through 
the  center  of  the  United  States  from  British  America  to  Cen- 
tral America.  It  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Rocky  mountains 
on  the  west,  nor  reach  the  Atlantic  coast  except  southwardly. 

As  distinguished  from  Thomomys,  Geomys  possesses  the  fol- 
lowing characters:  The  upper  incisors  have  a  deep  median 
groove  which  may  be  accompanied  by  a  second  fainter  one 
near  the  inner  margin.  The  inferior  incisor  is  very  long,  caus- 
ing a  slight  protuberance  on  the  outside  of  the  ascending 
ramus  between  the  angle  and  the  condyle,  but  this  is  not  so 
highly  specialized  as  in  Thomomys.  The  crowns  of  the  molars 
are  not  acute  exteriorly.  Zygomatic  arch  widest  in  front,  not 
forming  a  sweeping  gradual  arch  as  in  Synaptomys.  The  basi- 
occipital  is  not  greatly  narrowed.  Interparietal  triangular. 
The  palatal  bone  is  on  two  planes  with  a  double  excavation 
between.  Fore  claws  greatly  enlarged,  claws  of  hind  feet  spade- 
like.  The  external  ears  are  inconspicuous. 

The  differences  upon  which  the  genera  are  separated  are 
minute  and  almost  intangible,  but  on  account  of  the  few  species 
of  Thomomys  may  be  found  permanent.  The  latter  genus  con- 
tains but  two  species  and  one  of  these  is  a  reduced  form  found 
only  in  the  unfavorable  mountain  regions  of  the  west  Indeed, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  limited  size  and  many  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  genus  are  perhaps  correllated  with  the  range  in  dry  or 
otherwise  ill-suited  regions,  and  are  what  might  have  been  pre- 
dicated in  the  case  of  a  Geomys  transferred  to  the  same  localities. 

Of  the  genus  Geomys  thre'e  distinct  types  occur.  The  first 
represented  by  G.  bursarius  or  the  common  pouched  gopher 
with  a  southern  variety  in  the  south  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states 
(this  form,  G.  tuza,  is  frequently  ranked  as  a  species)  ;  the 
second  type  is  that  of  G.  mexicanus,  which  is  the  Mexican  re- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


223 


preservative  of  the  genus.  Aside  from  the  size,  which  is 
greater  than  G.  bursarius,  there  is  the  absence  of  the  marginal 
groove  on  the  incisors,  the  reduced  fore-claws  and  pouches  to 
distinguish  this  type.  With  it  is  associated  another  "species" 
(G.  castanops)  found  only  in  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  and 
which  combines  with  the  characters  of  the  one  some  of  those 
of  the  other.  The  third  type  occurs  in  Central  America  and 
and  is  represented  by  the  single  species  G.  hispidus.  The 
tendency  exhibited  in  the  Mexican  species  is  here  extended. 
The  result  is  an  animal  nearly  a  foot  long  with  shallow 
pockets,  stiff,  hairy  fur  and  short  claws. 


Geomys  bursarius  (SHAW)  RICHARDSON. 

COMMON  POCKET  GOPHER. 

Figs.  14,15,16. 


Fig.  14. 


The  traveler  in  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  must 
become  familiar  with  the  low  mounds  scattered  over  the 
prairies  in  groups  or  irregular  series.  These  mounds  are  a 
characteristic  feature  of  the  landscape  where  there  is  little 
else  to  diversify  it.  They  serve  to  exhibit  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  its  substratum  to  the  casual  observer.  These  little  hills 
are  the  masses  of  earth  which  are  thrown  out  by  the  gophers 
whose  burrows  mine  the  soil  beneath.  The  inhabitant  of  these 
burrows  is  the  subject  of  this  article.  The  first  description  is 
that  of  Shaw  in  the  Linnean  Transactions,  v,  1800.  The  paper 
was  accompanied  by  a  plate  which  represented  the  pockets 
everted  and  extended,  a  condition  impossible  in  nature  but  not 


224  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

infrequently  seen  in  stuffed  specimens.  Indeed  in  so  good  a 
work  as  Owen's  Comparative  Anatomy  the  same  error  is  re- 
peated and  the  gopher  is  figured  with  external  pouches 
pendulous  from  either  side  the  mouth. 

The  following  is  as  complete  a  list  of  the  bibliography  as  I 
can  compile.     Much  of  it  is  copied  directly  from  Coues'  mono- 
graph. 
Mus  bursarius  SHAW,  Linn.  Trans.,  v,  1800  ;  Gen.  Zoology,  ii,  1800. 

MITCHILL,  Arner.  Journ.  ScL,  iv,  1822. 

Cricetus  bursarius  DESMAREST,  Nouv.  Diet,  d'  Hist.  Nat.,  xiv  ;  Encycl. 
M6th.  Suppl.;  Mamm.  ii,  1822. 

F.  CUVIEB,  Diet.  Sci.  Nat.,  xx. 

DESMOULIN,  Diet.  Class.,  viii. 

GRIFFITH  (et  al.)    Animal  King.,  iii  and  v,  1827. 
Saccophorus  bursarius  KUHL,  Beitrage  z.  Zoologie,  1820. 

FISCHER,  Synopsis,  1827. 
Pseudostoma  bursarius  SAY,  Long's  Exped.  to  Rocky  Mts.,  1823. 

HARLAN,  Fauna  Boreal.  Amer.,  1825. 

LESSON,  Manuel  de  Mamm.,  1827. 

GODMAN,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  1831. 

DEKAY,  Fauna  N.  Y.,  1842. 

AUDUBON  and  BACHMAN,  Quadrupeds  N.  A.,  1849. 
Geomys  bursarius  RICHARDSON,  Sixth  An.  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc.  Adv.  Sci.,  1836. 

WOODHOUSE,  Sitgreaves'  Rep.  Zuni  and  Colorado  Rs.,  1853. 

PARVIN,  Ann.  Rep.  Smiths.  Inst,  1854-1855. 

KENNICOTT,  Trans.  111.  Agric.  Soc.,  1853-1854. 

GIEBEL,    Saugethiere,    1855;     Beitrage  i.    Osteologie  d. 
Nagethiere,  1857. 

BAIRD,  Mammals  N,  A.,  1857. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Arch.   Naturg.,   1861;  Verz.  Reise    N.  A. 
Saug. 

GERRARD,  Catalog  Bones  Brit.  Mus.,  1862. 

LEIDY,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1867. 

AMES,  Bull.  Minnesota  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences,  1874. 

COUES,  Proc.  Phila.  Acad.,  1875;  Powell's  Rep.  Colorado 

R.,  1875. 

Ascomys  bursarius  EYDOUX  AND  GERVAIS,  Voy.  sur  la  corvette  de  1'  etat 
La  Favorite,  1830. 

SCHINZ,  System.  Verz.  Saugethiere,  1844-1845. 

GIEBEL,  Odontographie. 
Ascomys  canadensis  LICHTENSTEIN,  Abh.  Acad.  Wiss.  Berlin,  1823. 

BRANTS,  Muizen,  1827. 

WAGNER,  Suppl.  Schreber's  Sauget.,   1843;  Abhand.   K. 

Baier.  Akad.  Munch.,  1846. 
Ascomys  drummondii  WAGNER.,  1.  c. 
Saccophorus?  albus  FISCHER,  Synopsis,  1827. 
Mussaccatus  MITCHILL,  N.  Y.  Med.  Repository,  1821. 
Geomys  canadensis  LECONTE,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  1852. 
Geomys  drummondii  RICHARDSON,  Sixth  Ann.  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc., 1833-1837. 
Geomys  oregonensis  LECONTE,  1.  c. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA 


225 


Geomys  breviceps  BAIRD,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.   Phila.,  1855;  Mammals 

N.  A.,  1857. 
GERRARD,  Cat.  Bones  Brit.  Mus.,  1862. 


Fig.  15. 

The  external  appearance  of  the  gopher  is  not  unlike  that  of 
a  rat  but  much  more  "squat"  and  compact.  The  head  is  broad 
and  flat.  The  strong  fore  limbs  and  the  huge  claws  are  a 
prominent  feature.  The  teeth  are  also  large  and  very  con- 
spicuous by  the  slight  development  of  the  lips  and  cheeks. 
The  posterior  part  of  the  body  is  produced  into  a  truncate 
cone  supported  by  the  elongated  pelvis  bones.  This  trunca 
tion  is  quite  conspicuous  in  so  much  that  the  tail  seems  to 
spring  from  a  special  square-topped  prominence.  The  tail 
itself  is  comparatively  short  and  is  sparsely  hairy  or  quite 
naked  at  the  tip.  The  skin  of  the  tail  is  not  scaly,  as  in  Mur- 
idce,  but  delicate  and  pink- tinted.  The  attitude  when  alarmed, 
especially  when  forced  into  strong  light  is  faithfully  repro- 
duced in  our  drawingf  and  other  characteristic  attitudes  are 
copied  in  the  outline  vignettes  accompanying. 

The  size*  varies  greatly  in  a  given  locality  but  there  is  little 
geographical  variation,  and  as  an  illustration  the  measure- 
ments of  two  females  are  given,  the  one  being  from  Minneap- 
olis near  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  and  one  from  Brown's 
Valley  in  the  extreme  western  part. 

tThe  author  refers  to  a  plate  which  was  omitted. 

*The  following  table  of  measurements  refers  to  specimens  collected  by 
Dr.  C.  E.  McChesney,  near  Ft.  Sisseton,  Dak.,  and  measured  in  the  flesh. 
The  table  is  extracted  from  the  complete  table  published  by  Coues  (p.  614 
of  his  monograph  of  Geomyidae)as  bearing  on  the  question  of  variation  in 
size  in  one  locality  and  that  near  our  own  station. 


226 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


The  tails  are  measured  from  a  different  point  than  those  measured  by 
the  writer,  which  must  be  allowed  for: 


SEX. 

Total 
length. 

Length 
of  body. 

Length 
of  head. 

Length 
fore   foot. 

Length 
of 
hind  foot. 

Longest 
claw. 

Male  

12.08 

9.00 

2.42 

1.25 

Male  

8.00 

2.45 

1.05 

Male  

12.07 

9.00 

2.62 

1.80 

1.37 

0.93 

Female  
Female 

10.30 
9  80 

7.90 
7.20 

2.05 
2  00 

.60 
47 

1.27 
1  05 

0.77 
0  62 

Male             

11  46 

8.50 

2  36 

.66 

1  35 

0  81 

Male                ..   . 

9.07 

6.50 

2.08 

50 

1  20 

0  70 

Male 

11.12 

8.50 

2.12 

64 

1  27 

0.80 

Male  

12.38 

9.25 

2.45 

70 

I  30 

0  84 

Female  

9.98 

7.50 

2.05 

1  60 

1.18 

0.80 

Female  

9.45 

7.00 

1.97 

1.46 

1  14 

0.75 

Female  

9.80 

7.30 

1.97 

1.55 

1.22 

0.67 

Female  

10.12 

7.45 

1.97 

1.60 

1.27 

0.69 

Male 

11  65 

9  00 

2  20 

1  82 

1  35 

0  83 

Male 

11  30 

9.25 

2  47 

1  78 

1  40 

0  81 

Female          .  .  . 

10  75 

8.00 

2.00 

1  63 

1  35 

0.75 

Female 

10  61 

8.00 

2  03 

1  60 

1  27 

0.74 

Male              

12  02 

9.25 

2.30 

1  85 

1  45 

0.82 

Female          .  .   . 

10  67 

8.00 

2.00 

1  68 

1.27 

0.73 

Male  

11  25 

8.25 

2  02 

1  69 

1.38 

0  75 

Female  

10.33 

7.50 

1.90 

1.57 

1.18 

0  60 

Male  

12.11 

9.00 

2.50 

1  76 

1.43 

0.83 

Female  

10  62 

7.85 

2.20 

1.68 

1.33 

0.81 

Female  

9.79 

7.12 

2.12 

1.55 

1.28 

0.66 

Female  

8.25 

6.00 

1.63 

1.37 

1.14 

0.47 

Male  

9.18 

6.50 

1.62 

1.55 

1.25 

0.57 

Female 

10  91 

8  25 

2  00 

1  65 

1  23 

0.70 

Female 

9  92 

7  00 

1  92 

1  64 

1  25 

0  70 

Male 

8  63 

6  08 

2  10 

1  55 

1  26 

0.64 

Male.. 

11.53 

8.50 

2.20 

1.82 

1.37 

0.73 

3 

3 

72 

No. 

Place. 

Sex. 

M 

Body 

Tail 

o 

S  O 

1-2 

S 

Sole 

II 

II 

11 

ll 

£ 

o^ 

MO 

46 

48 

Minneapolis... 
Brown's  Valley 

Female  .  . 
Female  .  . 

lOi 
lOi 

7i 
7i 

21 
3i 

1 
1 

it 

1 
1 

it 

& 

f 

The  length  of  the  opening  to  the  pouch  is  1T\.  The  fur  is 
dense  and  very  soft,  mole  like.  The  under  fur  is  plumbeous 
and  very  fine.  Externally  the  color  is  a  subdued  but  rich 
brown  with  a  purplish  or  reddish  reflection,  and  during  the  life 
of  the  animal  has  a  glossy  brilliancy  not  to  be  seen  in  the  pre- 
pared skin.  The  head  and  middle  of  the  back  are  darker 
brown.  Beneath  the  colors  are  much  lighter,  becoming  whit- 
ish on  the  feet,  tail  and  lower  lip.  There  is  also  a  light  spot 
on  the  nose  and  below  the  small  muffle.  The  whiskers  are  thin 
and  pale.  In  a  female  in  the  flesh  before  me  as  I  write  (August) 
the  colors  are  paler  than  above  described,  the  prevailing  tone 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  227 

being  very  light  hazel  darkened  with  Vandyke  on  the  back  and 
grayish  below.  There  occurs  a  peculiar  phase  of  coloration 
which  is  not  known  to  correspond  to  any  seasonal  or  physi- 
ological condition,  where  the  animal  is  dark  (almost  black) 
gray  and  nearly  concolor.  In  aged  individuals  there  is  a  con- 
siderable admixture  of  white  hairs,  especially  upon  the  head. 
In  summer  the  feet  and  tail  become  nearly  naked. 


\ 


Fig.  16. 

'  'The  habits  being  entirely  subterranean  with  the  exception  of 
rare  nocturnal  forays,  our  acquaintance  with  the  animal  must 
necessarily  be  formed  under  unfavorable  conditions.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  when  dragged  ruthlessly  from  its  home  a  prisoner  in 
the  jaws  of  a  trap,  the  recluse-like  animal  produces  an  unfavora- 
ble impression.  When  thus  brought  into  the  blinding  glare  of 
the  daylight  he  throws  himself  back  upon  his  haunches,  elevates 
his  head,  and,  half  in  fury,  half  in  pain,  gnashes  his  teeth  and 
utters  the  aspirated  sigh -like  spit  which  is  the  only  note  of 
offense.  Blinded  by  the  light,  he  turns  toward  every  sound 
and  appears  quite  demented.  But  in  the  seclusion  of  his  bur- 
row or  when  once  on  friendly  terms  with  his  captor,  he  appears 
a  very  different  creature.  Perhaps  we  are  the  only  persons 
who  have  had  the  opportunity  to  study  the  interesting  habits 
of  the  Geomys  in  captivity.  After  a  short  time  he  becomes 
perfectly  tame  and  an  engaging  pet.  When  first  secured  he  ate 
sparingly  of  potato  but  evinced  decided  preference  for  leaves 
and  rhizomes  of  red  clover,  seizing  them  in  one  fore  paw,  which 
was  used  as  a  pair  of  forceps  by  bringing  the  long  claws  in  op- 
position to  the  callosity  of  the  palm,  and  feeding  himself 
gracefully.  While  eating  he  assumed  a  semi-erect  attitude 
and  arched  the  back  much  as  the  muskrat  does.  In  eating  a 


228  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

clover  plant  he  always  pursued  the  same  method,  beginning  at 
one  extremity  and-  "feeding  it  into"  the  mouth  rapidly,  and 
uniformly  using  now  one  fore  paw,  now  the  other.  After 
the  keen  edge  of  the  appetite  was  removed  the  animal 
began  at  once  to.  stow  food  into  his  pockets,  in  doing  which  he 
reversed  his  former  position  and  seemed  to  all  but  stand  on 
his  head,  cramming  in  the  leaves  and  roots  with  much  celerity. 
The  play  of  jaws  is  ordinarily  like  that  of  a  rat,  but  at  times, 
when  a  large  root  was  encountered,  the  jaws  were  set  in  rapid 
motion  so  that  the  clicks  made  by  the  teeth  blended  in  one 
uniform  clatter.  A  similar  habit  has  been  noticed  in  several 
rodents,  especially  the  porcupine.  The  only  truly  vocal  sound 
was  a  sharp  squeak  if  the  hissing  note  of  rage  be  excepted. 
Upon  the  smooth  surface  of  the  floor  the  motions  seemed  em- 
barrassed and  awkward.  A  small  twine  stretched  on  the  floor 
served  to  stop  his  course  until  he  divided  it  with  the  teeth 
rather  than  step  over  it." 

'  •  When  placed  in  a  vessel  of  fresh  earth  the  Geomys  seemed 
almost  distraught.  The  smell  of  fresh  soil  acted  as  a  power- 
ful stimulant  and  the  animal  careened  about  before  falling  to 
violent  digging  which  he  carried  on  literally  tooth  and  nail, 
biting  the  clods,  rooting  violently,  and  throwing  back  the  earth 
with  the  feet.  This,  however,  was  but  play,  and  it  was  only 
when  given  larger  quarters  that  he  began  the  excavation  of  a 
burrow  in  real  earnest.  The  position  in  digging  is  with  the 
hind  feet  well  forward  and  the  back  strongly  arched.  The 
earth  is  thrown  back  with  the  fore  paws,  and,  as  it  accumulates 
under  the  animal,  the  latter  launches  a  vigorous  kick  with  both 
hind  feet  in  the  most  ludicrously  earnest  manner.  After  a  con  sid- 
erable  pile  is  thus  formed  behind  the  animal,  he  turns  about  and 
approximating  the  callosities  of  the  two  fore  feet  in  front  and 
with  the  claws  well  up,  he  pushes  the  mass  before  him  by  the 
action  of  the  hind  limbs  until  it  piles  up  in  front  of  him,  and 
he  looks  like  a  diminutive  earth  scraper.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
the  earth  is  brought  to  the  surface  and  not  in  the  pockets  as 
often  stated.  The  whole  process  is  accomplished  in  the  most 
brisk  and  business-like  manner  possible.  Thus,  in  the  habits 
of  the  animal  we  have  the  explanation  of  an  osteological  pecu- 
liarity of  the  wrist.  There  is  a  strongly  developed  bone  (the 
falciform)  not  found  in  many  mammals  which  serves  to  sup- 
port the  callosity  which  in  this  case,  as  we  have  seen,  serves 
bottt  as  a  scraper  and  an  aid  in  prehension.  The  most  notice- 
able fault  of  the  gopher  is  his  gluttony.  The  amount  he  eats 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  229 

is  alarming.  Our  pet  seated  himself  calmly  upon  the  knee  and 
disposed  of  one  grass  stalk  after  another  most  vivaciously, 
eagerly  seeking  for  more.  Bread  was  especially  desired  and 
with  a  shrewd  eye  for  the  future  the  beggar  would  fill  both 
pockets,  and  when  appetite  and  both  pockets  were  filled  he 
would  empty  the  latter  in  a  corner  of  his  den  and  promptly 
return  for  more." 

* '  When  given  the  liberty  of  the  room,  he  set  off  in  a  curious 
canter  but  usually  returned  to  be  placed  in  the  box,  where  he 
constructed  a  new  nest  every  day.  In  the  darkest  portion  he 
formed  a  nest  of  dry  grass  where  the  midday  sleep  was  enjoyed. 
This  siesta  is  very  profound  so  that  one  could  frequently  re- 
move him  from  the  box  before  he  awaked,  which  he  did  with 
a  start  and  appeared  to  require  some  time  to  get  his  bearings." 

"In  suitable  localities  one  may  trace  the  progressive  exten- 
sion of  the  burrow  by  the  small  hillocks  of  earth  thrown  up, 
often  extending  in  an  irregular  line  for  many  rods  in  a  meadow. 
The  digging  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  early  summer  and  autumn, 
or  after  a  long  rain.  Dry  earth  is  difficult  to  manipulate  and 
during  drought  the  favorite  food  of  the  gopher  is  not  to  be 
secured.  The  hillocks  resemble  those  of  a  mole  but  are  much 
larger.  The  burrows  are  of  two  sorts,  permanent  run-ways 
and  explorative  or  temporary  burrows.  The  latter  are  near 
the  surface  and  are  closed  off  from  the  permanent  burrow  when 
completed.  When  such  a  burrow  is  made  in  a  potato  field  it 
can  be  traced  with  the  utmost  regularity  from  hill  to  hill  and 
the  tubers  are  systematically  removed  and  stored  in  large  deep 
cellars.  The  amount  which  one  family  will  carry  off  in  a  few 
days  is  all  but  incredible.  The  natural  food  consists  of  grass 
roots,  especially  the  tender  shoots  of  the  red  clover,  and  like 
plants.  A  curious  provision  against  winter  needs  was  fre- 
quently observed.  The  main  run-way  was  provided  with  blind 
alleys  at  intervals,  each  of  which  was  somewhat  expanded  at 
the  end.  Here  a  store  of  grass  roots  is  accummulated  in  quan- 
tities varying  from  a  pint  to  nearly  half  a  peck.  The  amount 
seems  to  be  intentionally  limited  so  that  the  slight  heating 
shall  stimulate  the  roots  to  fresh  growth,  thus  providing  fresh 
supplies  for  the  winter.  Larger  chambers  are  constructed  for 
the  tubers  of  Helianthus,  etc. " 

"It  is  probable  that  the  animal  does  not  drink.  Current 
stories  as  to  the  digging  of  subterranean  wells  and  the  like 
being,  so  far  as  we  could  learn,  fabrications.  There  is  no  evi- 
dence of  hibernation  though  in  the  nature  of  the  case  it  cannot 


230  BULLETIN   NO.   VII 

be  disproven.     The  female  appears  to  perform  most  of  the  work 
of  digging." 

' '  The  gophers  may  be  trapped  by  one  familiar  with  their 
habits.  When  a  fresh  mound  is  found  this  should  be  opened 
so  that  direct  daylight  falls  into  the  burrow.  Then  a  second 
opening  is  made  along  the  trend  of  the  passage  about  eighteen 
inches  from  the  first.  The  opening  is  carried  a  few  inches 
below  the  level  of  the  run-way  and  in  it  a  small  steel  trap  is 
placed.  The  trap  is  carefully  covered  with  light  earth  to  the 
level  with  the  run-way  and  the  light  completely  excluded  from 
the  second  opening.  The  success  of  the  plan  depends  upon  the 
dislike  of  the  gopher  for  light.  He  at  once  brings  a  fresh  sup- 
ply of  earth  to  stop  up  the  opening  and  being  blinded  by  the 
light  does  not  observe  the  second  excavation.  If  the  latter 
presents  any  irregularities,  however,  he  immediately  deposits 
the  load  there  and  barricades  the  burrow  at  that  point."  * 


FAMILY  LEPORID^E. 

HARES. 

This  small  and  well-defined  family  is  pre-eminently  North 
American  and  our  own  state  contains  parts  of  two  rather  dis- 
tinct faunas,  though  only  three  species  are  as  yet  known. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  family,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  other  rodents,  is  puzzling.  South  America 
is  richer  than  any  other  continent  in  rodentia  and  yet  the  single 
species  of  hare  found  within  it  is  more  than  probably  derived 
more  or  less  directly  from  the  North  American  group.  More 
than  this,  the  pikas  (Lagomyidce),  which  seem  to  be  the  closest 
living  allies  of  the  hares,  were  circumpolar  in  their  distribution 
in  comparatively  recent  times,  though  now  represented  by  a 
single  American  and  six  Asiatico-European  species.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  true  that  South  America  contains  a  variety  of 
curious  rodents  specialized  in  different  directions.  Here,  for 
example,  are  springing,  hare-like  animals  with  long  squirrel- 
like  tails,  others  resembling  antelopes  in  form  and  possessing 
hoof-like  claws  (Dolichotis).  The  Guinea  pigs  and  the  hog-like 
Hydrochcerus  (capybara)  make  up  with  these  a  curious  and 
suggestive  assemblage  of  forms  from  among  which  it  may  be 
possible  to  glean  evidences  of  the  common  stock  from  which 

*C.  L.  and  C.  Judson  Herrick.    Bui.  Deuison  Univ.,  vi. 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA.  231 

they,  with  the  hares,  have  descended.  The  hares  are,  however, 
among  the  most  widely  distributed  of  rodents,  and  with  the 
squirrels  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  except  Australia, 
the  mice  being  the  only  family  superior  in  this  respect. 

Thus  far  a  very  few  species  of  fossil  hares  have  been  found 
and  these  are  united  in  the  genus  Palceolagus,  Leidy,  and  are 
from  the  Miocene  formations  of  America.  Related  species  re- 
ferred at  present  to  the  same  family  have  been  found  in  Pliocene 
and  later  deposits  also  in  America.  The  pikas  (Lagomys)  have 
not  yet  been  found  fossil  in  America,  but  are  known  to  have 
inhabited  the  whole  of  Europe  and  England  in  Pliocene  times. 
The  geographical  limits  of  the  latter  group  has  thus  been 
greatly  reduced  meanwhile  probably  by  the  more  extensive 
glaciatioA  of  Europe. 

OSTEOLOGICAL  PECULIARITIES   OF   LEPORID^E. 

There  are  long  hypapophyses,  or  ventral  median  processes 
upon  the  anterior  lumbar  vertebrae.  These  processes  are  almost 
peculiar  to  the  hares.  The  anterior  thoracic  vertebrae  have 
very  long  spines.  The  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar 
vertebrae  are  also  very  long  and,  with  the  hypapophyses,  serve 
to  set  off  the  interior  muscular  masses  which  play  so  important 
a  part. 

The  caudal  vertebrae  are  few  and  those  at  the  base  have  a 
great  expansion  of  the  transverse  processes. 

The  manubrium  of  the  sternum  is  compressed  and  extended 
forward  as  in  other  rodents  in  which  the  clavicle  is  rudimen- 
tary. 

The  skull  has  its  longitudinal  axis  more  or  less  strongly 
curved,  the  facial  surface  of  the  maxilla  is  perforate  and  cur- 
iously reticulated.  The  lachrymal  bone  is  entirely  within  the 
orbit. 

The  palate  in  rodents  is  usually  narrow.  In  the  hare  the 
anterior  palatine  foramina  are  longitudinal  slits  of  great  size. 
The  part  of  the  palate  between  the  molars  is  reduced  to  a  very 
narrow  bridge. 

The  tympanic  is  anchylosed  to  the  periotic  and  develops  a 
well  marked  tubular  auditory  meatus  which  is  directed  upwards 
and  backwards.  The  supraorbital  process  forms  a  great  shield 
over  the  eye.  The  hyoid  arch  is  reduced,  the  basihyal  being 
compressed  and  keeled. 

The  scapula  is  rather  slender,  the  acromium  is  long,  and 
there  is  a  long  metacromium.  In  the  rabbit  the  clavicle  develops 


232  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

only  after  birth.  An  os  centrale  is  found  in  the  carpus.  The 
outer  or  acetabular  border  of  the  ilium  is  almost  obsolete,  and 
the  gluteal  and  iliac  surfaces  are  confluent. 

The  tibia  is  very  long.  There  is  a  third  trochanter  below 
the  trochanter  major  of  the  femur.  The  fibula  is  slender  and 
distally  united  with  the  tibia,  while  above,  it  is  united  by  an 
interosseus  cartilage.  The  hallux  or  inner  toe  is  wanting,  and 
the  metatarsals  are  elongated. 

COMPARISON  OF  CRANIA  OF  AMERICAN  HARES. 

The  skulls  of  Lepus  callotis  and  of  L.  californicus  are  very 
similar.  L.  californicus  appears  to  have  the  mandible  more 
slender,  with  the  margin  between  angle  and  condyle  more 
deeply  excavated,  otherwise  the  two  species  agree  quite  fully 
and  differ  from  L.  timidus  var.  arcticus  and  L.  campestris  in 
the  very  long  and  slender  nasals,  the  less  strong  curvature  of 
the  crani-facial  axis  and  some  other  differences. 

The  skulls  of  L.  aquaticus  and  L.  palustris  carry  out  the 
peculiarities  of  the  L.  sylvaticus  group  to  an  extreme.  The 
lower  jaw  becomes  solid  and  broad.  The  supraorbital  frontal 
processes  are  fused  completely  with  the  skull.  The  hamular 
process  of  the  zygomas  are  enlarged,  thus  giving  greater 
security  to  the  glenoid  fossa.  In  both,  the  maxillary  part  of 
the  inter- alveolary  bridge  is  enlarged  rather  than  the  palatal 
portion.  The  constriction  of  the  nasals  just  prior  to  the  end 
is  also  noticeable. 

The  differences  between  the  skulls  of  Lepus  sylvaticus  and  L. 
auduboni  are  not  of  a  very  tangible  character, if  we  may  judge 
from  Prof.  Baird's  figures.  The  comparison  is  not  facilitated 
by  the  fact  that  the  skull  of  the  latter  figured  was  evidently 
that  of  a  young  animal  while  that  of  L.  sylvaticus  is  an  old  one 
with  sutures  closing  and  frontal  processes  united  with  the 
skull.  (See  Baird's  Mammals,  PL  Iviii.)  The  interparietal  of 
the  latter  is  either  ignored  or  has  anchylosed  with  the  neigh- 
boring parts.  But  we  know  that  usually  at  least  this  anchy- 
losis does  not  take  place  even  in  old  L.  sylvaticus.  Other 
apparent  differences  may,  probably,  be  eliminated  in  like  man  - 
ner.  Baird's  figure  of  the  basis  cranii  in  the  one  case  is  in- 
complete but  shows  the  absence  of  two  teeth  present  in  the  L 
sylvaticus. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  233 

ANATOMY  OF  SOFT  PARTS. 

The  stomach  is  roundish,  curved,  partially  constricted  into 
two  compartments  of  which  the  pyloric  is  most  muscular.  The 
coecum  of  the  intestine  is  large. 

There  are  ten  teats  in  Lepus. 

The  external  ear  varies  in  size  and  form  with  the  species, 
but  the  following  description  of  that  of  L.  campestris  will  serve 
to  illustrate  its  peculiarities: 

It  is  in  this  species  of  immense  size,  being  7-J  inches  long 
from  the  base  to  tip.  The  essential  parts  to  be  distinguished 
are  the  cartilage  which  gives  it  its  form,  the  muscles  and  the 
dermal  covering.  The  ears  are  densely  furred  without 
and  half  way  down  within  and  are  thus  well  protected  from 
the  severity  of  the  rigorous  climate  in  winter.  The  cartilage 
itself  is  papery  toward  the  tip  but  below  becomes  somewhat 
thicker.  The  general  form  may  be  described  as  spoon- shaped, 
the  lower  -J  being  the  hollow  handle,  this  part  is  tubular  and 
forms  the  opening  into  the  internal  ear.  Aside  from  the  nearly 
straight  canal  formed  by  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  are  two 
semi-cylindrical  cavities,  one  on  either  side.  The  anterior  of 
these  is  the  pars  anteriorhelicis  which  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  anterior  being  a  blind  sac  f  in.  deep — the  fossa  conchas — 
the  posterior  a  groove  separated  from  the  meatus  by  a  small 
spina  helicis  anterior.  A  much  larger  spina  helicis  posterior 
separates  the  other  part  of  the  helix  which  occupies  the  opposite 
side  of  the  ear;  this  groove  opens  into  the  external  meatus 
below.  At  the  bottom  of  the  slit  which  forms  the  opening 
of  the  external  ear  is  a  lobate  slit  called  the  incisura  intertra- 
gica  which  separates  two  concave  lips  which  represent  the 
tragus  and  antitragus.  The  upper  part  of  the  ear  or  scapha  is 
less  concave  and  is  well  furred.  The  scutulum  is  the  large 
cartilage  at  the  base  which  slides  over  the  top  of  the  skull  and 
furnishes  insertion  and  origin  for  many  muscles  which  move 
the  ear;  it  is  £  inch  long. 

Lepus  campestris  BACHMAN. 

PRAIRIE  HARE. 

Fig.  17. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Lepus  variabilis  LEWIS,  Barton's  Med.  and  Phys.  Journ.,  ii,  1806,  159. 

GODMAN,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  1826,  69. 
Lepus  virginianus,  var.t  HARLAN,  Fauna  Amer.,  1825,  310. 
Lepus  virginianus  RICHARDSON,  Faun.  Bor.  Am.,  i,  1829,  224. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Riese,  i,  1839,  508. 
—  1  o 


234  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Lepus  campestris  BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.,  Nat.  Sci    Phil.,  vii,  1837,  349; 

viii,  1839,  80. 

WATERHOUSE,  Nat.  H.  Mam.,  ii,  1848,  127. 
GIEBEL,  Saugethiere,  1855,  449. 
BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857,  585. 
NEWBERRY,  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  vi,  iv,  1857,  62. 
COOPER,  ibid.,  xii,  iii,  1860,  104. 
SUCKLEY,  ibid.,  xii,  iii,  1860,  131. 
MAXIMILIAN,  Wiegm.  Arch.,  1861,  Bd.  i,  145. 
HAYDEN,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.  Phila.,  xii,  1862. 
GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  1ST.  H.,  3d  series,  xx,  1867. 
ALLEN,  Proc.  Best.  Soc.  N.  H.,  viii,  1875,  433. 
ALLEN,  Bull.  Essex  Inst.,  vi,  1874. 
COUES,  ibid.,  vii,  1875,  p.  73;  -       -  U.  S.  Geog.  Surv.  W. 

100  Mer.,  vol.  v.,  p.  127. 
ALLEN,  Monographs  N.  A.,  Rodentia,  ii,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv. 

Terr.,  vol.  xi,  1877. 
Lepus  townsendi  BACHMAN,    Journ.  Acad.  N.  S.    Phila.  viii,    1839,  90, 

PL  II;  Townsend's  narrative,  1839. 
AUD.  and  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A.,  i,  1849,  25. 
COOPER,  Am.  Nat.,  ii,  1868,  536. 

This  is  readily  distinguished  from  any  species  found  in  Min- 
nesota, not  only  by  its  great  size,  but  by  the  great  length  of 
ears  and  tail,  which  latter  is  white  above  and  below.  It  is 
much  larger  than  the  varying  hare  and  about  equals  the  North- 
ern L.  timidus.  It  is  universally  called  jack-rabbit.  The 
prairie  hare  is  a  denizen  of  the  northern  part  of  the  plains, 
claiming  kin  with  the  sage-bush  and  rattle-snake.  Its  habitat 
extends  from  the  plains  of  the  Saskatchewan  to  middle  Kan- 
sas and  Utah.  It  occurs  in  Northern  California,  and  Western 
Minnesota.  The  species  was  first  described  by  Lewis  and 
Clarke  in  1814,  but  received  its  name  from  Bachman  in  1837, 
and  has  suffered  several  vicissitudes  since. 

In  winter  this  hare  is  white  throughout  except  the  black  tips 
of  the  ears  and  traces  of  yellowish  brown  upon  the  top  of  the 
head.      The  fur  does  not  become  white  to  the  base,  however, 
the  under  fur  and  base  of  hairs  being  reddish  brown .     In  sum- 
mer the  upper  parts  become   yellowish  gray   or  brownish 
There  is  usually  a  white  fleck  in  the  centre  of  the  forehead 
and  the  ears  are  creamy  white  below  and  brown  above. 

The  following  measurements  will  give  an  idea  of  the  propor- 
tions: Length,  20.25;  tail,  5.50;  forefoot,  2.85;  hind  foot, 
5.75;  hight  of  ear,  4.80.  A  female  purchased  in  Minneapolis 
market,  January  12,  1884,  measured:  Length,  22;  tail  to  end 
of  hairs,  7;  tail  to  end  of  vertebraB,  4.25;  nose  to  eye,  2.37; 
nose  to  ear,  3.75;  ear,  5.25;  fore  foot,  3;  hind  foot  8.9.  The 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 


235 


species  has  been  encountered  in  Minnesota  near  Big  Stone 
lake,  though  it,  no  doubt,  ranges  over  a  large  part  of  South- 
western Minnesota.  In  1876  the  writer  secured  a  specimen  at 


FIG.  17.    Bones  of  Lepus  campestris. 

Explanation  of  figures:  Fig.  t,  skull  from  above;  Fig.  2,  skull  from  side;  Fig.  3, 
lower  jaw;  Fig.  4,  pelvis;  Fig.  5,  scapula;  Fig.  6,  axis;  Fig.  7,  atlas;  Fig.  8,  pelvis  of 
Lepus  sylvaticu*. 


236  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

the  head  waters  of  the  Des  Moines  river,  which  is  the  most 
eastern  authenticated  point  of  capture  of  which  we  have  been 
informed. 

In  Dakota  it  must  still  be  abundant  as  large  numbers  some- 
times find  their  way  into  city  markets. 

Lepus  sylvaticus  BACHMAN. 

COMMON  RABBIT. 

Fig.  17  (8). 

VAR.  SYLVATICUS. 

Lepus  nanus  SCHREBER,  Saugethiere,  iv,  1792  (part.) 

DEKAY,  Zool.  of  New  York,  1842,  p  93. 

WAGNER,  Suppl.  Schreber's  Saug.,  iv,  1843. 
Sylvilagus  nanus  GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  H.  3d.  series,  xx,  1867,  221. 

ALLEN,  Bull.  Mus.  Comp  Zool.,  i,  1869. 
Lepus  americanus  DESMAREST,  Mammalogie,  ii,  1822. 

HARLAN,  Fauna  Amer.,  1825. 

AUDUBON,  Birds  of  Amer.  pi.  51. 

FISCHER,  Synop.  Mam.,  1829,  376  (in  part.) 

BACHMAN,  Jour.  Acad.  N.  S.  Phila.,  vii,  1837. 

EMMONS,  Quad.  Mass,  1840,  56. 

THOMPSON,  Nat.  Hist.  Vermont,  1842,  48. 

Lepus  sylvaticus  BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.  N.  S.  Phila.,  vii,  1837,  345,  pi. 
xxii;  viii,  1839,  79. 

WATERHOUSE,  Nat.  Hist.  Mam.,  ii,  1848. 

AUDUBON  and  BACHMAN,  Quad.  N.  A.,  i,  1849,  173,  pi. 
xxii. 

WOODHOUSE,  Sitgreave's  Col.  and  Zuni  R.  Exp.,  1853,  55. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Wiegmann's  Arch.,  1861,  i,  144. 

BAIRD,  Mam.    N.   A.,  1857,  597,  pi.  viii;  U.  S.  and  Mex. 
Bound.  Surv.,  ii,  1859. 

HAYDEN,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  xii,  1863,  148. 

ABBOTT,  Cook's  Geol.  N.  Jersey,  1868,  759. 

ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  N.  H.,  xiii,  1869,  194;  Bull.  Mus. 
Comp.  Zool.,  ii,  1871,  184. 

ALLEN,    Monographs,    N.  A.  Rodentia,  ii,   U.    S.  Geol. 

Surv.  Terr.,  vol.  xi,  327. 
Sylvilagus  bachmani  GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  N.  H.  3d  series,  xx,  1867,  222- 

VAR.  NUTTALLI. 

Lepus  nuttalli  BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.  N.  S.  Phila.,  vii,  1837,    345,    pi. 

xxii;  viii,  1839,  79;  Townsend's  Narrative,  1839,  329. 
AUD.  and  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A.,  ii,  1851,  300. 
BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857,  606;  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound. 

Surv.,  ii,  1859,  ii,  48. 

Lepus  sylvaticus  var.  nuttalli  ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.    Soc.  N.  H.,  xvii,   1875, 
334;  Monog.  N.  A.  Rod.,  ii,  p  328. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  237 

Lepns  artemisia  BACHMAN,    Journ.    Acad.    N.  S.    Phila.,  viii,  1839,  94; 

Townsend's  Narrative,  1839,  329. 
WATERHOUSE,  N.  H.  Mam.,  ii,  1848, 126. 
ATJD.  and  BACH.,  Quad.  N.  A.,  1851,  ii,  272. 
WOODHOUSE,  Sitgreave's  Col.  and  Zuni  R.  Exp.,  1853. 
BAIRD,   Mam.  N.  A.,  1857,  602;  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound. 

Surv.,  ii,  1859,  ii,  48. 

NEWBERRY,  Pacif.  R.R.  Rep.,  vi,  iv,  1857,  65. 
KENNERLY,  ibid.,  x,  vi,  1859,  16. 
SUCKLEY,  ibid.,  xii,  iii,  1860,  105. 
STJCKLEY  and  GIBBS,  ibid,  132. 

HAYDEN,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.  Phila.,  xii,  1863,  148. 
COUES,  Am.  Nat.,  i,  1867, 534;  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila., 

1867, 136. 

Sylvilagus  artemisia  GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  N.  H.  3d  series,  xx,  1867,  222. 
Lepus  artemisiacus  WAGNER,  Suppl.  Schreber's  Saug.,  iv,  1844. 

VAR.  AUDUBONI. 

Lepus  auduboni  BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857,  608. 

NEWBERRY,  Pac.  R.  R.  Rep.,  vi,  iv,  1857,  65. 

KENNERLY,  ibid,  x,  vi,  1859, 17. 

GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  N.  H.  3d  series,  xx,  1867. 

Lepus  sylvaticus  var.  aububoni  ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.    Soc.  N.  H.,  xvii,  1875t 
434;  Monog.  N.  A.  Rod.,  ii,  p.  329. 

Geographical  variation  and  distribution.  As  regards  the  gen- 
eral subject,  the  present  writer  can  hope  to  add  nothing  to  the 
exhaustive  elaboration  in  Allen's  memoir,  from  which  the  facts 
respecting  the  geographical  variation  outside  our  own  state 
are  taken  with  no  further  acknowledgement.  The  habitat  of 
L.  (Sylvilagus)  sylvaticus  extends  from  a  line  north  of  tne 
isotherm  of  45°,  but  conforming  more  or  less  with  it,  except 
westerly,  where  the  northern  limit  is  restricted,  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  United  States  and  southward  to  Yucatan. 

The  typical  L .  sylvaticus  extends  from  Southern  Maine  west 
to  Dakota,  south  through  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indian  Territory 
and  Eastern  Texas  to  Yucatan.  The  entire  United  States  east 
of  this  line  save  the  hights  of  the  Alleghanies  are  occupied  by 
this  tolerably  permament  variety.  The  geographical  variation 
over  this  region  consists  in  "an  increasing  paleness  from  the 
Mississippi  westward  toward  the  plains,  where  the  variety 
sylvaticus  passes  by  insensible  steps  into  variety  nuttaUi.  The 
specimens  from  'Eastern  Nebraska  and  Eastern  Dakota  can,  in 
general,  hardly  be  referable  to  the  one  form  rather  than 
the  other.  At  the  southward  the  colors  become  slightly  more 
intense,  but  the  difference  is  by  no  means  striking.  *  *  *  The 
brownish  terminal  band  of  the  under  fur  becomes  more  uni- 


238  BULLETIN   NO..  VII. 

formly  traceable,  being  generally  present  in  specimens  from 
about  Washington,  but  much  stronger  in  those  from  S.  Carolina 
and  Florida,  in  which  it  generally  forms  a  strong,  broad  bar, 
though  sometimes  obsolete." 

The  amount  of  black  i.  e.  the  length  of  the  black  tips  of  the 
coarser  hairs  is  variable  in  the  same  locality,  seasonally  and 
otherwise, 

Winter  specimens  are  lighter  than  the  same  individuals  in 
summer,  and  the  difference  is  apparently  greatest  to  the  north. 
Our  Minnesota  winter  specimens  are  very  light  colored.  Al- 
though there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  a  decrease  in  size 
southward  according  to  the  usual  law,  it  is  slight  and  speci- 
mens from  Mexico  are  as  large  as  northern  individuals.  The 
local  peculiarities  of  station  seem  to  have  a  more  direct  influ- 
ence than  the  general  geographical  influences. 

' '  Southern  specimens  generally  have  the  ears  less  covered 
han  northern  ones,  the  feet  less  heavily  furred,  and  the  gen- 
eral pelage  harsher  and  less  full.  Southern  specimens  also 
show  a  tendency  to  decidedly  longer  ears  than  the  northern 
ones."  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  law,  an  increase  of 
mean  annual  temperature  and  humidity  tends  to  cause  greater 
development  of  apendicular  parts. 

VAR.  NUTTALLI. 

This  variety  expresses  the  law  that  treeless,  dry  regions 
tend  to  diminish  the  intensity  of  coloring.  "The  lightest 
specimens  appear  to'  be  those  from  western  Wyoming,  Colorado, 
Nevada  and  Utah,  Arizona  specimens  passing  gradually  into 
var.  arizonce."  In  size  there  is  some  difference,  the  present 
variety  being,  according  to  Allen,  about  twelve  per  cent,  smaller. 
The  proportions  are  the  same  and  the  difference  in  size  has 
usually  been  overestimated.  Northern  specimens  have  dense 
soft  fur  and  heavily -clothed  ears  and  feet.  The  paleness  is  due 
to  a  suppression  of  the  yellowish  or  fulvous  subterminal  rather 
than  the  black  terminal  portion  of  the  coloring. 

VAR.  ARIZONA 

is  the  extreme  of  the  tendency  expressed  by  the  above  but  with 
the  addition  of  considerably  elongated  ears,  they  being  one- 
third  longer  than  those  of  types  of  the  above  variety.  This 
variety  was  founded  upon  some  six  specimens,  of  which  part 
at  least  were  young,  and  we  await  with  interest  the  accumula- 
tion of  additional  material. 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA.  239 

VAR.  AUDUBONI 

is  about  the  size  of  L.  sylvaiicus  and  has  longer  ears.  The 
dorsal  surface  is  yellowish-brown  mixed  with  black,  under- 
neath white.  It  is  the  darker  phase  of  _L.  sylvaticus  inhabiting 
the  moist  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast  from  northern  California 
to  San  Diego,  passing  on  the  southern  limit  into  var.  arizonce. 
In  color  it  is  said  to  resemble  L.  irowbridgei  which  is  much 
smaller  and  has  no  black  upon  the  ear- tips  and  has  a  shorter  tail. 

The  L.  bachmani  described  by  Waterhouse  and  figured  by 
Audubon  is  regarded  by  Allen  as  simply  the  common  variety, 
an  immature  individual  being  the  basis  of  the  description  and 
figures.  The  latter  are  very  poor  and  are  not  distinctive. 

L.  ariemisia  is  regarded  as  a  synonym  for  L.  nuttalli.  The 
name  L.  bachmani  was  applied  later  to  the  gray  hare  of  the 
Texas  plains  and  it  is  therefore  doubtful  if  that  name  is  not 
also  a  synonym  of  the  sage  hare,  L.  nuttalli. 

Size.  A  full  grown  female  gives  the  following  measurements : 
Length,  18.50;  tail,  3;  nose  to  eye,  If;  nose  to  ear,  (open- 
ing) 3|;  nose  to  occiput,  3.25;  ears,  2f;  fore  foot,  If; 
hind  foot,  4.25.  (No.  38,  Jan.  1884).  This  it  will  be  seen 
from  the  appended  schedule  is  not  an  unusual  measurement  for 
adult  specimens  in  Minnesota.  Out  of  thirty-five  specimens, 
of  which  measurements  are  given  in  Allen's  Monograph  of 
North  American  Leporidse,  but  one  reaches  the  length  given 
above.  The  wide  range  from  which  the  specimens  were 
received  makes  it  the  more  remarkable  that  that  one  should 
be  from  Iowa,  and  the  next  largest  (17.00  long)  should  be  from 
Wisconsin,  and  that  the  suit  of  specimens  from  Iowa  should  be 
uniformly  of  large  size.  The  average  of  the  thirty- five  speci- 
mens falls  below  15.45.  A  number  of  specimens  from  Kansas 
fall  below  13.50,  showing,  presumably,  a  transition  to  the  west- 
ern varieties. 

Of  L.  sylvaticus,  Baird  gives  following  measurements  of  a 
fresh  specimen: 

Nose  to  occiput 3 . 25 

"     "    eye 1 . 93 

"     "    ear 3.17 

"     "    root  of  tail 16.75 

"     "    end  of  outstretched  legs 26.75 

Tail  to  end  of  vertebrae 2.00 

Tail  to  end  of  hairs . .  2.75 


240  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Forearm 3.08 

Elbow  to  end  of  claws 4 . 75 

Tibia 3.42 

Heel  to  claws 3 . 58 

This  makes  the  total  length 19 . 50 

Or  1  in .  more  than  our  largest  specimen . 


Lepus  americanus  ERXL. 


VABYING  HARE.     "WHITE  BABBIT." 

VAR.   AMERICANUS. 

Lepus  americanus  ERXLEBEN,  Syst.  Beg.  Animal.,  1777. 

GMELIN,  Syst.  Nat. ,  i,  1788, 162. 

SHAW,  Gen.  Zool.  Mam.,  iii,  1801,  202. 

DESMAREST,  Mammal  ogie,  1822,  351. 

SABINE,  Franklin's  First  Journ.,  1824. 

BICHARDSON,  App.  Parry's  Second  Voyage,  1825,  324. 

Fauna.  Bor.  Am.,  i,  1829,  217. 

. Back's,  Arct.  Land  Exp.,  1836. 

FISCHER,  Syn.  Mam.,  1829,  376. 

BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  vii,1837, 403;  viii, 
1839,  76. 

DEKAY,  New  York  Zool.,  i,  1842,  95. 

WAGNER,  Suppl.  Schreber's  Sauget.,  iv,  1844. 

WATERHOUSE,  Nat.  Hist.  Mam.,  ii,  1848. 

AUDUBON  and  BACHMAN,  Quad.  N.  A.,  i,  1849. 

GIEBEL,  Saugethiere,  1855,  449. 

BAIRD,  Mam.  N.  A.,  1857. 

GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  3d  series,  xx,  1867. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Wiegm.  Archives,  1861. 

Boss,  Canad.  Nat.  and  Geol.,  vi,  1867. 

WELCH,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  London,  1869. 

GILPIN,  Proc.  and  Trans.  Nova  Scotia  Inst.  Nat.  Sci., 

iii,  1872. 
Lepus  hudsonius  PALLAS,  Nov.  Sp.  Glires,  1778. 

BODD^ERT,  Elench.  Anim.,  i,  1784. 

ZIMMERMAN,  Pennant's  Arktische  Zool.,  i,  1887,  96. 
Lepus  nanus  SCHREBER,  Sauget.,  ii,  1792. 
Lepus  campestris  HAYDEN,  Am.  Nat.,  iii,  1869. 

DALL,  Alaska  and  its  Besources. 

Lepus  variabilis  var.  GODMAN,  Am.  Nat.  Hist.,  ii,  1826. 
Lepus  borealis  SCHINTZ,  Synop.  Mam.,  ii,  1845. 

X,epus  americanus  var.  americanus  ALLEN,  Monog.  N.  A.  Bodentia,  1876.    l 
"American  Hare,"  FORSTER,  PENNANT,  ETC. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  241 

VAR.  VIRGINIANUS. 

Lepus  americanus  BACHMAN,  Journ.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  vii,  1837;  viii, 
1839. 

DEKAY,  WAGNEK,  AUD.  and  BACH.,  BAIRD,  GRAY. 

ALLEN,  Bull.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  i,  1869. 

HALL,  Can.  Nat.  and  Geol.,  vi,  1861. 
Lepus  virginianus  HARLAN,  Fauna  Am.,  1825. 

FISCHER,  Synop.,  1829. 

DOUGHTY,  Doughty's  Cab.  N.  Hist.,  i,  1830. 

BACHMAN,  Jour.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  vii,  1837. 

EMMONS,  Quad.  Mass.,  1840. 

THOMPSON,  Nat.  Hist.  Vermont,  1842. 
Lepus  americanus  var.  virginianus  ALLEN,  Mo  nog.  N.  A.  Rodentia,  1876. 

VAR.  WASHINGTONI. 

Lepus  washingtoni  BAIRD,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phila.,  vii,  1855;  Mam.  N 

A.,  1857. 
COOPER,    SUCKLEY,    SUCKLEY  and   GIBBS,  Pacif.  E.  R. 

Reports,  1860. 

GRAY,  Ann.  and  Mag.  N.  H.,  3d  ser.  xx,  1867. 

Lepus  americanus  var.   washingtoni  ALLEN,  Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist., 
xvii,  1875;  Monog.  N.  A.  Rodentia,  1876. 

VAR.  BAIRDI. 

Lepus  bairdi  HAYDEN,  Am.  Nat.,  in,  1869. 

Lepus  americanus  var.  bairdi  ALLEN,  Bull.  Essex.  Inst.,  vi,  1874;  Proc. 

Bost.    Soc.    Nat.    Hist.,    xvii,   1875;   Monog.   N.  A. 

Rodentia,  1876. 

Although  I  have  copied  the  synonomy  for  the  several  varie- 
ties of  our  common  hare  as  given  by  Allen  it  must  be  admitted 
that,  save  as  to  the  last,  it  requires  hair  (hare)  splitting  nicety 
to  make  out  any  distinctions  which  will  not  be  utterly  invalidated 
by  individual  variation.  In  general  the  southern  L.  americanus 
has  a  less  reddish  cast  of  the  summer  pelage  and  the  part  of  the 
hairs  which  becomes  white  in  winter  is  restricted.  The  period 
during  which  the  winter  pelage  is  worn  is  shorter,  but  the  varia- 
tions in  size  are  so  insignificant  as  compared  with  individual 
variation  as  to  present  no  basis  for  remark.  There  is,  of 
course,  the  probability  that  the  ultimate  size  of  the  northern 
specimens  will  be  found  greater,  but  the  facts  thus  far  col- 
lected give  but  negative  results.  Variety  americanus  in  its 
typical  form  does  not  enter  the  United  States  so  far  as  known. 
The  var.  ivashingtoni,  though  originally  supposed  to  be  much 
smaller  appears  to  be  simply  a  more  fulvous  form  with  the 
pelage  soft  and  full.  Though  this  variety  is  said  not  to  un- 
dergo a  seasonal  change  about  Puget's  Sound,  its  pelage  seems 
elsewhere  to  have  a  deeper  outer  white  zone  in  winter  than  the 
previous  varieties. 


242  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Var.  bairdi  is  not  different  in  size  and  proportions  from  other 
varieties  of  L.  americanus.  '  'The  most  prominent  distinctive 
features  in  summer  pelage  are  its  pure  white  under-fur,  the 
long,  black  tips  of  the  hairs  and  the  white  feet,  and  in  winter 
the  tendency  of  the  pelage  to  become  pure  white  to  the  base." 
"This  variety  appears  to  be  strictly  an  alpine  form  inhabiting 
the  snowy  summits  of  the  higher  portions  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. "  Baird  supposed  that  there  were  marked  differences'  in 
size  especially  of  the  tarsi  to  distinguish  this  from  the  other 
varieties  which  are  said  by  Allen  not  to  obtain. 

The  following  remarks  must  be  understood  to  pertain  to 
Minnesota  specimens  simply  unless  otherwise  stated : 

It  is  unnecessary  to  devote  space  to  a  description  of  the 
habits  of  so  familiar  an  animal.  Chapters  of  every  country 
boy's  experience  could  easily  be  recalled  by  allusions  to  box- 
traps  and  snares.  The  greatest  feat  of  the  creature  is  per- 
formed with  his  feet,  and  the  image  of  personified  fear  with  a 
puff  of  feathery  tail  and  a  confused  mixture  of  hurtling  legs 
and  pendant  ears  constitutes  our  idea  of  the  hare.  Its  whole  life 
is  one  continual  flight.  Nevertheless  there  are  quiet  intervals 
when  fragrant  clover  blooms  and  aromatic  apple  bark  sooth  the 
fears.  Although  so  timid,  the  ha,re  actually  possesses  consid- 
erable courage.  A  countryman  having  captured  a  leveret,  was 
employed  in  marking  it  by  notching  its  ears,  when  he  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  mother,  who  flew  at  him  with  singular  courage  and 
struck  so  fiercely  with  her  fore  feet  that  she  tore  his  hands  sev- 
erely. Being  unable  to  release  her  young,  she  waited  until  he 
liberated  the  little  hare,  with  wrhich  she  went  off.  The  males  are 
quite  pugnacious,  waging  fierce  combats  with  their  own  spe- 
cies .  Billings  gives  an  illustration  in  the  case  of  specimens 
confined  with  hares  of  other  species.  "The  old  males  at  this 
period  seemed  to  be  animated  with  new  courage;  they  had 
previously  suffered  themselves  to  be  chased  and  worried  by 
the  common  English  rabbit,  and  even  retreated  from  the  at- 
tacks of  the  gray  rabbit,  but  now  they  stood  their  ground,  and 
engaged  in  fierce  combats  with  the  other  prisoners  and  gener- 
ally came  off  victorious.  They  stamped  with  their  feet  and 
used  their  teeth  and  claws,  and  in  the  fight  tore  off  patches  of 
skin  and  mutilated  the  ears  of  their  former  persecutors  until 
they  were  left  in  undisturbed  possession  of  the  premises." 
When  frightened  the  rabbit  will  frequently  strike  the  ground 
with  such  force  with  its  feet  as  to  produce  a  considerable 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


243 


sound,  thus  giving  the  alarm  to  the  does  much  as  the  beaver 
does  with  its  tail. 

The  hare  when  close-pressed  will  take  to  water,  concealing 
itself  in  the  herbage  with  only  the  nose  exposed;  it  also  swims 
readily.  Frequently  these  animals  become  a  great  pest,  as 
they  peel  and  so  destroy  the  young  fruit-trees.  This  may  be 
in  a  measure  prevented  by  painting  the  bark  with  tobacco  de- 
coction or  other  distasteful  substance.  The  young  of  the  hare 
are  able  to  see  at  birth.  The  leverets  are  suckled  about  three 
weeks,  while  the  natural  life-time  is  perhaps  ten  years. 

FAMILY  HYSTRICIDJE- 


Fig.  18,  Spfcin0Mru8  mlloxw  WATERHOUSE,  S.  Amer. 


244  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  porcupines  (carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  hedge- 
hogs) constitute  a  small  family  of  rather  large,  clumsy  and 
indolent  rodents  which  are  conspicuous  among  their  fellows 
for  the  remarkable  change  which  some  of  the  long  hairs  un- 
dergo. These  become  altered  to  form  sharp  quills  which 
usually  are  so  armed  with  retrorse  bristles  as  to  make  them 
very  perfect  defensive  weapons.  The  body  is  usually  heavy 
and  low,  the  head  short  and  blunt  with  heavy  muzzle  and 
small  ears.  The  form  varies  much  and,  in  particular,  the  tail 
may  be  short  and  bristly,  or  long,  naked  and  prehensile.  The 
feet  have  naked  soles  and  usually  have  the  first  digit  reduced 
on  one  or  both  pairs  of  limbs.  The  toes  are  usually  armed 
with  very  strong  curved  claws.  The  eastern  porcupines  are 
terrestrial,  living  in  burrows  or  cavities  in  rocks  while  on  the 
western  continent  they  are  more  or  less  arboreal.  The  food 
consists  of  roots,  fruits,  bark,  green  leaves  and  pulpy  stalks 
and,  on  occasion,  almost  anything  edible.  Like  most  vegetable 
feeders  they  are  very  fond  of  salt  and  are  as  a  result  of  their 
filthy  habits,  particularly  liable  to  internal  parasites. 

The  nasals  are  frequently  very  large  ;  the  lachrymal  obsoles- 
cent ;  there  is  no  preorbital  process  of  the  temporal  as  in 
hares ;  the  zygomas  are  massive  and  short.  There  are  four 
molars  in  each  jaw  of  similar  form  and  size  ;  the  incisors  are 
large  and  smooth  in  front ;  the  palate  is  excised  between  the 
molars.  Malar  bone  with  no  angular  process  below.  There 
are  seven  cervical,  fourteen  to  sixteen  dorsal,  five  lumbar, 
three  or  four  sacral  and  from  twelve  to  thirty  caudal  vertebrso. 
The  clavicles  are  poorly  developed.  There  are  but  four  rnam- 
ms8  in  the  female. 

The  porcupines  are  brought  into  relation  with  rodents  in 
general  by  a  number  of  South  American  animals  which  com- 
bine the  spiny  armature  with  rat-like  or  hare-like  characters. 

The  family  is  very  naturally  divided  into  two  groups  or  sub- 
families as  well  by  the  diversity  in  habits  as  anatomical  differ- 
ences of  the  animals  inhabiting  the  two  hemispheres.  The  Hys- 
tricince,  or  Old  World  porcupines,  are  terrestrial  and  a  number 
of  anatomical  peculiarities  growing  out  of  this  habit  are  obser  - 
vable.  The  Synetherince,  or  American  porcupines,  are  arboreal 
and  thus  require  more  perfect  clavicles  and  ordinarily  pre- 
hensile tails.  The  molars  are  rooted  while  the  number  of  toes 
is  less,  the  digits  being  armed  with  hooked  claws  which  serve 
in  climbing.  The  soles  are  tuberculated  or  roughened.  The 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  245 

North  American  species  are,  as  might  be  expected,  more  like 
the  European  types  than  those  of  South  America. 

As  we  have  but  a  single  species  in  North  America,  instead 
of  a  more  extended  discussion  of  the  group  it  must  suffice  to 
give  a  list  of  the  described  species  and  the  above  figure  of 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  foreign  types. 

SUBFAMILY  SYNETHERIN^E 

Clavicles  perfect;  molars  rooted;  toes  4-4  or  5-4;  tail  generally  prehen- 
sile; habit,  arboreal.  Western  Hemisphere. 

Genus  Chcetomys  GRAY.  Containing  a  single  species  of  rather  slender 
form, with  a  rat-like  scaly  tail.  The  malar  bone  is  very  broad,  with  a  spur 
above.  C.  subspinosus  Gray,  S.  A. 

Genus  Synetheres  F.  CUVIER.  The  body  is  rather  slender,  clothed  with 
straight  spines.  The  tail  is  scaly  at  the  end  only.  The  temporal  region  is 
very  broad  and  high.  The  body  is  covered  with  spines  except  beneath, 
where  they  are  replaced  by  bristles.  The  skull  is  greatly  elevated  between 

the  eyes. 

1.    S.  prehensilis  BRANDT,  S.  A. 
£.    £.  platycentrotus  BRANDT,  S.  A. 
?  3.    S.  magna  LUND.  \     Fossils  from  Caverns  of 

?  4.    S.  duMa  LUND. 

?  5.    S.  fossilis  LUND.  >  Minas  Geraes. 

Genus  Sphingurus  F.  CUVIER.  Much  as  above  but  hairy  below  and 
without  the  great  elevation  between  the  eyes. 

1.  S.  villosus  WATERHOUSE,  S.  A. 

2.  S.  pallidus  WATERHOUSE,  S.  A. 

3.  S.  melanurus  WATTERER,  S.  A. 

4.  S.  bicolor  TSCHUDI,  S.  A. 

5.  8.  iwoce-hispanice  WATERHOUSE,  Mexico. 
Genus  Ereihizon  F.  CUVIER.    (See  beyond). 

1.  E.  dorsatus  CUVIER,  N.  A. 

2.  E.  dorsatus  var.  epixanthus  BRANDT. 

SUBFAMILY  HYSTRICIN^B. 

Clavicles  imperfect;  toes,  5-5;  molars  but  partly  rooted;  tail,  short; 
habit,  terrestrial  or  fossorial.  Eastern  Hemisphere. 

Genus  Hystrix  LINN.  Body  short;  head  thick  with  blunt  muzzle; 
covered  with  very  long  erectile  spines;  tail  inconspicuous. 

1.  H.  cristata  L.,  Europe  and  N.  Africa. 

2.  H.  hirsutirostris  BRANDT,  Syria,  etc. 

3.  H.  africce-australis  PETERS,  S.  Africa. 

4.  H.  javanica  CUVIER,  Java,  etc. 

5.  H.  fwdgsoni  GRAY. 

Genus  Atherura  M.  G.  CUVIER.  Much  as  in  Hystrix,  but  with  long  ap- 
pendaged  tail  and  but  four  toes  in  front. 

1.  A.fasciculata  SHAW,  Siam. 

2.  A.  macroura  WATERHOUSE,  Sumatra. 

3.  A.  africana  GRAY,  Sierra  Leona. 

A  number  of  fossil  forms  of  more  or  less  uncertain  position  might  be 
here  included. 


246  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


(jenus  Erethizon  F.  CUVIER. 

This  genus  may  be  distinguished  from  other  American  por- 
cupines at  once  by  its  having  five  toes  armed  with  strong  claws 
behind.  The  body  is  thick  and  bulky,  the  limbs  being  short  and 
oddly  shaped,  adapted  for  climbing  and  hanging.  The  tail  is 
short  and  covered  all  over  with  spines  and  bristles.  The  ana- 
tomical details  are  given  beyond  and  it  may  be  simply  noticed 
that  the  facial  part  of  the  skull  is  greatly  elevated  and  the  malars 
are  expanded  anteriorly.  The  molars  converge  anteriorly;  the 
bullse  are  very  large  and  inflated,  the  infraorbital  foramina 
are  of  great  size.  The  palate  is  ridged  and  ends  opposite  the 
third  molar.  Although  there  is  but  a  single  species,  two 
marked  geographical  varieties  are  known,  the  first  of  these, 
the  Canada  porcupine,  once  ranged  over  all  suitable  woody 
districts  from  the  Atlantic  westward  to  the  Saskatchewan  and 
southward  into  Virginia.  Northward  it  is  restricted  by  food 
supply  rather  than  the  rigors  of  the  climate  and  seems  to  be 
co-extensive  in  its  range  with  the  timber  belt.  Toward  the 
west  it  does  not  extend  so  far  south  as  eastwardly  and  occurred 
in  Ohio,  Northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  and  Northern  Min- 
nesota. Although  well  protected  from  the  attacks  of  wild 
animals,  the  porcupine  falls  an  easy  victim  to  man  and  has 
neither  the  skill  nor  means  to  evade  him.  Thus  it  is  that  the 
species  is  rapidly  becoming  extinct  in  settled  parts  of  the 
country.  The  western  variety  extends  from  the  Pacific  to 
meet  the  Canada  porcupine  and  southward  along  the  moun- 
tains to  the  Mexican  line. 


Erethizon  dorsatus  L. 

CANADA  PORCUPINE. 

This  animal  seems  to  be  less  common  within  the  limits  of 
our  state  than  in  portions  of  Wisconsin.  Lumbermen  of  ex- 
perience state  that  upon  the  Chippewa  river  it  is  a  frequent  and 
annoying  visitor  to  the  lumber  camps,  where  its  swine-like 
inquisitiveness  leads  it  to  break  open  and  destroy  provisions 
which  it  can  not  eat.  In  Minnesota  its  distribution  may 
roughly  correspond  with  that  of  the  pine  forests,  yet  nowhere 
does  it  become  more  than  locally  frequent  and,  even  where 
measureably  common,  it  is  less  frequently  encountered  than 


Plate  VII. 


EKETHIZON  UORSATUS.     CANADA  PORCUPINE. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  247 

would  be  naturally  expected  from  its  clumsy  habit  and  slug- 
gish nature.  Our  own  personal  acquaintance  with  the  animal 
is  confined  to  the  period  of  a  visit  to  the  St.  Louis  river  in  June 
and  July.  There  upon  the  northern  limits  of  pinery  cutting  it 
may  be  seen  at  its  best  and  is  at  home  in  the  fullest  sense.  It 
may  be  best  to  introduce  the  animal  to  the  reader  in  the  same 
way  that  we  formed  its  acquaintance.  Imagine,  then,  a  few 
hours  before  midnight,  a  birch  canoe,  with  a  flaming  torch  in 
the  bow,  propelled  quietly  down  the  stream  in  the  shadow  of 
the  banks  which  are  themselves  brightly  illuminated  for  some 
distance  ahead  by  our  light.  We  are  watching  for  the  lumi- 
nous eyes  of  the  deer,  which,  startled  in  their  feeding  places 
stand  quaking  at  the  sudden  apparition.  Our  attention  is 
attracted  by  a  most  peculiar  clattering  sound — evidently  the 
teeth  of  some  animal  in  very  rapid  motion,  but  more  rapid  and 
louder  than  anything  we  had  ever  heard.  The  source  of  the 
sound  we  are  at  first  unable  to  make  out,  but  again  we  start  at  the 
sound  of  heavy  feet  and  crackling  branches.  Some  heavy 
animal  comes  down  to  the  water's  edge  where  the  banks  are 
covered  with  a  new  growth  of  arrow-head  leaf  (Sagittaria) 
succulent  and  green,  for  it  is  June  and  the  receding  waters 
have  but  lately  exposed  the  roots  to  the  sun.  The  clatter  of 
teeth  is  again  heard  very  loud  and  inexplicable  until  we  make 
out  the  gray  form  of  a  burly  porcupine  which  at  once  starts 
up  the  bank  much  as  an  overfed  hog  might  do.  A  shot 
brought  the  animal  to  the  water's  edge  where,  after  flounder- 
ing about  a  little,  it  began  to  swim  toward  us  evidently  in  a 
vindictive  mood.  Another  shot  made  it  ours  and  we  found  it 
an  imense  animal  measuring  over  three  feet  from  its  blunt 
muzzle  to  the  end  of  the  spiny  tail.  The  stomach  of  this  speci- 
men, a  full-grown  male,  contained  nothing  but  the  finely  com- 
minuted shoots  of  Sagittaria.  On  the  same  night  at  about 
eleven  o'clock  we  encountered  a  second  individual  which  after 
receiving  a  shot  clambered  with  comparative  agility  into  the 
top  of  a  tall  tree. 

It  should  not  be  concluded  from  the  above  account  that  the 
porcupine  is  strictly  nocturnal.  In  the  afternoon  they  may  be 
seen  feeding  along  the  meadows,  using  their  four-clawed  hands 
with  awkward  cleverness  in  bringing  branches  or  grass  tufts 
within  reach  of  their  mouths.  If  alarmed  they  clamber  under 
the  overhanging  banks,  or  under  roots  of  upturned  trees,  draw- 
ing the  body  together  with  the  quills  bristling,  and  there  lie 
in  fancied  security.  Indeed,  in  such  a  position  they  are  more 


248  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

difficult  for  the  predacious  animals  which  might  attempt  their 
capture  than  ever  was  chestnut  to  the  inquisitive  squirrel. 
Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  larger  animals  do  not  attempt 
to  capture  the  porcupine,  but  during  severe  weather  game  be- 
comes so  scarce  that  the  lynx  and  panther  are  driven  to  sacri- 
fice future  happiness  to  the  urgent  need  of  food.  The  porcupine 
makes  a  famous  dish  when  once  safely  "peeled,"  but  sight  and 
even  life  itself  is  endangered  in  the  process. 

We  have  received  specimens  of  Lynx  rufus  with  the  head 
filled  with  quills,  some  of  which  penetrated  the  orbit.  Such 
specimens  are  usually  lean  and  apparently  in  a  famished  condi- 
tion. Even  the  panther  is  sometimes  found  killed  by  the  shafts 
of  this  critie  among  beasts. 

Of  course  there  is  no  truth  in  the  current  belief  that  the  por- 
cupine discharges  its  quills  like  a  horrible  animated  gattling 
gun,  but  it  is  said  that  by  sudden  lashings  of  its  short  tail  quills 
are  fastened  in  the  skin  of  its  enemies.  Once  fastened,  these 
barbed  quills  penetrate  with  fearful  pertinacity,  every  move- 
ment of  the  body  serving  to  drive  them  on. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  this  animal  is  a  good  swimmer. 
He  even  voluntarily  crosses  large  rivers  and,  on  account  of  the 
lightness  of  the  body,  stands  so  far  above  the  surface  as  to  ap- 
pear like  a  very  large  animal. 

Although  preferring  the  green  inner  bark  of  trees  and  new 
shoots  or  succulent  vegetable  matter  the  porcupine  is  upon  oc- 
casion omnivorous.  The  taste  of  salt  is  greatly  relished,  and 
pork  skins  and  salt  covered  barrels  are  greedily  eaten;  even  the 
slight  salty  taste  imparted  by  the  hands  attracts  them,  and  the 
implements  of  lumbermen  suffer  from  their  teeth.  Indians  re- 
gard them,  in  their  turn,  as  delicate  food,  but  what  the  flavor 
may  be  the  writer  has  not  ventured  to  discover. 

Of  the  winter  or  breeding  habits  we  can  say  nothing  from  per- 
sonal observation.  It  is  said  by  trustworthy  witnesses  that 
during  the  very  coldest  weather  porcupines  sometimes  spend 
days  and  weeks  suspended  in  the  tops  of  high  trees  apparently 
in  a  state  of  suspended  animation. 

It  is  stated  that  two  young  are  produced  at  a  birth  (more 
rarely  three  or  four)  and  these  are  lodged  in  hollow  trees  or 
like  retreats  until  able  to  care  for  themselves.  When  startled 
by  the  approach  of  man,  they  are  said  to  utter  cries  like  those 
of  a  child. 

The  porcupine  makes  its  nest  in  a  ledge  of  rocks  or  in  a 
hollow  log.  Its  young,  which  are  but  one  or  two  in  number, 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  249 

are  born  about  the  first  of  May  and  are  very  large,  being  act- 
ually larger  and  relatively  more  than  thirty  times  larger  than 
the  young  of  the  black  bear  at  birth.  Merriam  says :  * '  May 
1st,  1882,  I  shot  at  Big  Moose  Lake,  a  female  porcupine  which 
contained  a  foetus  that  would  certainly  have  been  born  within 
two  or  three  days.  It  weighed  one  and  one-quarter  pounds 
avoirdupois  (567  grammes),  and  measured  in  total  length  eleven 
and  one  fourth  inches  (285  mm.),  the  head  and  body  measuring 
about  seven  and  three-fourths  inches  (just  195  mm.).  It  was 
densely  covered  with  long  black  hair,  and  the  quills  on  its 
back  measured  over  half  an  inch  (13  mm.)  in  length.  The  dis- 
coid placenta  measured  two  and  one-quarter  inches  (57  mm.) 
in  diameter." 

The  first  mention  of  the  porcupine  which  I  have  found  in 
works  treating  of  animals  from  Minnesota  is  the  following 
from  Carver's  Travels  (p.  423)  which,  while  rather  more  ac- 
curate than  most  of  his  descriptions,  contains  several  errors: 

"The  body  is  covered  with  hair  of  a  dark  brown,  about  four 
inches  long,  a  great  part  of  which  are  of  the  thickness  of  a 
straw  and  are  termed  quills.  These  are  white  with  black 
points,  hollow  and  very  strong,  especially  those  of  the  back. 
The  quills  serve  this  creature  for  offensive  and  defensive  wea- 
pons, which  he  darts  out  at  his  enemies  and  if  they  pierce  the 
flesh  in  the  least  degree,  they  will  sink  quite  into  it,  and  are 
not  to  be  extracted  without  incision.  The  Indians  use  them 
for  boring  their  ears  and  noses  to  insert  their  pendants,  and 
also  by  way  of  ornament  to  their  stockings,  hair,  etc.,  besides 
which  they  greatly  esteem  their  flesh. " 

Carver  also  enumerates  the  "hedgehog",  but  does  not  de- 
scribe or  again  mention  it.  What  may  be  meant  I  am  at  a  loss 
to  conjecture. 

The  following  measurements  indicate  the  size  of  a  full-grown 
male:  Nose  to  anus,  2ft.;  girth,  2.4;  tail,  11  in. ;  hind  foot, 
4.3;  longest  claw  of  hind  foot,  1.1;  claw  of  pollex,  0.7;  longest 
claw  of  fore  foot,  1.1;  tibia,  6;  fore  leg,  5;  upper  incisor,  0.9; 
lower  incisor,  1.2;  nose  to  eye,  1.9;  nose  to  ear,  3.7;  width  of 
muzzle  over  2;  hight  of  muzzle  from  end  of  upper  incisor,  2.2; 
eye,  0.5. 

The  general  color  is  vandyke  brown,  the  quills  being  yellow- 
ish white  with  brown  points.     The  long  hairs,  white  with  dark 
bands.     The  outer  part  of  the  fur  is  lighter  brown.     There  is 
a  light  stripe  on  either  side  the  tail,  but  below  it  is  nearly  black 
-16 


250  BULLETIN  NO   VII. 

The  phalangial  part  of  the  feet  is  umber  brown,    the  nails 
brownish  black. 

The  full  grown  female  is  smaller,  and  the  colors  are  lighter 
about  the  head  and  shoulders.  Nose  to  anus,  1.8  ft.;  tail,  9in; 
nose  to  eye,  1.7;  nose  to  ear,  3. 6 ;  hight  of  ear,  1. 5 ;  breadth  of  muz- 
zle, 1.3;  longest  hind  claw,  1.2;  longest  fore  claw,  1.  There 
are  four  teats,  the  first  pair  being  five  inches  from  the  clavicles, 
the  second  seven  and  one-half.  There  is  a  minute  claw  upon 
the  rudimentary  thumb. 

A  young  porcupine  collected  July  3d,  measured  as  follows: 
Body,  1  ft.,  3. 25in. ;  tail,  6. 25 ;  longest  claw,  0. 7 ;  upper  incisors,  0. 4. 
The  color  is  vandyke  brown,  in  which  is  a  plentiful  sprinkling 
of  longer  hairs,  the  outer  one-fourth  of  which  are  nearly  white.. 
This  gives  the  whole  an  ashy  appearance  unlike  the  more 
marked  coloration  of  the  adult.  There  is  a  girdle  of  elongated 
quills  forming  a  zone  over  the  back  in  front  of  the  pelvic  region. 
In  front  of  this  tuft  the  quills  are  hidden  by  the  pelage,  and 
back  of  it  the  fur  is  denser  and  darker,  and  without  the  gray 
hairs  except  on  the  sides  where  also  the  quills  appear.  The 
tail  and  rump  are  therefore  uniform  brown.  The  under  parts 
of  the  body  are  rather  sparsely  covered  with  fine  hair  like  that 
of  the  raccoon.  The  tail  is  nearly  black  below.  The  length 
of  the  quills  of  the  porcupine  varies  much.  Sometimes  they 
are  nearly  hidden  under  the  pelage,  and  at  others  form  a  very 
conspicuous  thicket,  especially  upon  the  middle  of  the  back  and 
on  the  hips.  There  is  a  prominent  tuft  of  long  hairs  springing 
from  the  back  of  the  head. 

Although  skeletons  were  carefully  prepared,  a  subsequent  ill- 
ness afforded  opportunity  for  their  misplacement,  and  I  can 
only  give  details  of  the  skull  and  such  notes  upon  the  anatomy 
as  were  jotted  down  in  the  field. 

The  skull,  (see  plate  VII)  when  viewed  from  the  side,  at 
once  draws  attention  to  the  elevation  anteriorly.  Although  a 
plane  touching  the  condyles  and  the  incisors,  also  touches  the 
anterior  molars,  the  distance  from  the  end  of  the  incisors  to  the 
nasals  is  nearly  1.50,  while  from  the  condyles  to  the  top  of  the 
occipital  is  but  0.90.  The  zygomatic  width  is  2.60,  the  greatest 
length  3.50.  The  nasals  along  the  median  line  measure  1;  the 
f rentals  the  same.  The  inter-orbital  distance  is  1.05;  the  com- 
bined width  of  the  nasals  0.75.  The  distance  from  the  f rentals 
to  back  of  skull  is  1.40;  from  meatus  to  meatus  1.60.  The 
nasals  are  spatulate  convex;  the  temporals  concave,  especially 
behind.  From  the  rudimentary  supraorbital  process  there 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  251 

extends  a  prominent  ridge  diagonally  across  the  parietals  to 
the  median  crest  of  the  supraoccipital.  The  combined  width 
of  the  parietals  is  1.40;  two  large  foramina  passing  into  the 
squamosals  at  the  point  of  greatest  width  just  behind  and 
medianly  from  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  squamosals.  The 
squamosals  are  long  and  narrow,  measuring  1.40;  the  zygomatic 
process  being  nearly  horizontal  and  only  slightly  curved  at  the 
very  end.  The  interparietal  is  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  no- 
ticed. The  skull  is  flat  behind,  the  supraoccipital  being  1.50 
wide  and  but  1  high.  The  par-occipital  processes  are  moder- 
ately prominent  and  nearly  vertical.  The  foramen  magnum 
is  nearly  0.60  wide  and  is  lemon-shaped.  The  premaxillary  is 
very  large,  0.80  long,  and  sends  up  two  very  large  flat  plates 
which  incline  backward  and  outward.  The  opening  of  the 
nares  is  thus  an  inverted  truncate  triangle.  The  premaxillary 
extends  beyond  the  nasals  considerably.  The  main  portion  of 
the  maxillary  seen  from  the  side  is  nearly  an  isosceles  triangle; 
the  palatal  portion  is  small  and  ridgy;  the  infra-orbital  foramen 
is  immense,  leaving  two  slender  columns  to  support  the  zyg- 
oma. The  palatal  is  greatly  reduced,  the  last  molar  being  entirely 
back  of  the  palate.  The  molar  series  are  inclined  to  each 
other  at  an  angle  of  30°;  the  outer  margins  if  extended  for- 
ward meeting  at  the  incisor  or  a  little  beyond.  The  malar  is 
1.40  long  and  greatly  expanded  anteriorly  while  its  posterior 
end  is  knobbed  and  inflexed. 

The  basi sphenoid  is  0.55  long,  and  its  pterygoid  processes 
are  short  but  prominent  and  soldered  on  to  the  bullse  which  are 
prominent  and  large.  The  basioccipital  is  nearly  0.60  long 
along  the  median  line.  The  lower  jaw  is  massive;  the  angle  of 
the  mandible  being  inflexed,  making  a  large  shelf  on  either 
side.  The  condyle  with  its  ascending  ramus  is  blunt  and  short, 
while  the  coronoid  process  is  but  an  inconsiderable  spur  on  the 
front  edge  of  the  ascending  ramus.  Length  of  mandible  2.80; 
hight  of  ascending  ramus  1.30;  length  of  molar  series  1.11. 
The  pattern  of  the  molar  crowns  seems,  at  first,  very  uniform, 
but  a  more  careful  study  shows  considerable  variation.  There 
is  an  outer  and  inner  enamel  layer  forming  a  double  wall  about 
the  tooth  when  worn.  The  size  and  general  contour  of  the 
teeth  are  alike  in  all  of  the  sixteen  teeth,  but  various  minor  dif- 
ferences occur.  In  general  each  crown  consists  of  two  opposite 
semilunes  united  in  the  middle;  each  semilune  consists  of  an 
outer  and  inner  enamel  wall,  and  these  may  be  parallel  or  the 
inner  one  may  be  folded  upon  itself.  In  some  cases,  between 


252  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

the  semilunes  are  interpolated  folds  or  figures,  and  here  certain 
transitional  stages  seem  to  show  that  the  outer  and  inner 
enamel  layers  are  parts  of  the  same  layer.  The  details  may  be 
gathered  from  the  figures. 

CONCLUDING    REMARKS   ON  THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF  RODENTIA. 

The  rodents  are  perhaps  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the 
orders  of  Mammafta,  yet  but  one  of  its  families  (Muridce),  in- 
cluding the  universally  distributed  rats  and  mice,  is  found 
represented  in  all  the  major  land  areas.  In  this  respect  the 
hares  and  squirrels  (Leporidce  and  Sciuridce)  come  next,  they 
being  found  everywhere  except  in  Australia  and  Madagascar. 
In  the  former  the  only  members  of  the  placental  Mammalia  are 
six  genera  of  mice  of  which  four  are  not  found  elsewhere, 
while  in  Madagascar  three  genera  peculiar  to  that  island  alone 
occur.  South  America  is  richest  in  rodents  and,  except  for  a 
few  genera  shared  with  North  America,  is  the  exclusive  habitat 
of  its  species.  Thirty -seven  genera  are  credited  to  it  of  which 
thirty-two  are  endemic. 

Africa  is  next  in  numerical  richness  and  affords  about  thirty 
genera,  several  of  which  are  found  also  in  India  and  the  Medi- 
terranean province,  only  twenty -one  being  endemic.  The  North- 
ern continents  are  less  rich  in  species  and  exhibit  the  custom- 
ary uniformity.  The  palearctic  region  has  some  twenty-five 
genera  of  which  only  about  fifteen  are  not  found  either  in  India, 
Africa  or  North  America.  Southeastern  Asia  is  remarkably 
poor  in  species,  and  the  few  genera  considered  endemic  are 
nearly  allied  to  widely  distributed  groups.  North  America, 
although  possessing  several  peculiar  types,  is  closely  similar 
to  the  Asiatico-European  continent  in  its  rodents. 

These  facts  lead  to  the  assumption  that  the  rodents  are  de- 
rived from  several  ancestral  lines  which  have  continued  inde- 
pendent in  the  principal  discrete  land-areas.  The  principal 
centres  of  divergence  are  supposed  to  be  in  South  America  and 
Africa.  Most  of  the  important  families  are  represented  by 
remains  as  early  as  Eocene  Tertiary.  In  Europe,  during  that 
period,  there  lived  members  of  the  existing  genera  Sciurus, 
and  Myoxus.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  the  squir- 
rels appeared  in  America  rather  later  than  in  Europe,  although 
the  synchronousness  of  epochs  of  like  names  in  the  two  conti- 
nents is  pure  assumption.  Remains  of  Sciurus  have  not  been 
found  earlier  than  the  Miocene  here,  while  in  the  Eocene  there 
were  types  of  such  extinct  genera  as  Paramys  and  Sciuravus. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  253 

The  mice  appear  in  both  Europe  and  America  in  the  Eocene, 
some  naturalists  identifying  the  genus  Arvicola  in  South  Ameri- 
can strata  of  that  age.  In  the  Miocene  many  additional  forms 
appear  as,  in  Europe,  the  jumping  mouse  (Issyodromys),  the 
beaver,  and  beaver-like  animals  ( Chalicomys  and  Steneo/iber ) .  The 
Miocene  was  the  time  when  the  rodents  expanded  to  their  pres- 
ent proportions,  since  which  time  few  changes  of  importance 
have  taken  place.  The  progenitor  of  the  Rodentia  is  as  yet 
undiscovered,  and  speculation  will  have  little  weight  until  some 
truly  intermediate  forms  are  discovered.  The  oldest  remains 
thus  far  discovered  are  truly  rodent-like. 


254  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE  ARTIODACTYLA. 

THE    HOOFED    QUADRUPEDS. 

HIS  large  group  of  mammals  is  a  part 
of  what  was  once  termed  Pachydermata^ 
i.  e. ,  the  thick-skinned  mammals.  Throw- 
ing out  the  elephants,  which  are  really 
very  different  from  any  other  mammals 
whatever,  there  certainly  is  a  consider- 
able degree  of  unity  of  structure  among 
the  members  of  that  group,  horses  and 
cattle  being  structurally  as  well  as  casually  associated.  The 
artiodactyle  or  even- toed  mammals  are  of  large  or  medium  size 
and  of  various  form  and  habits.  The  herbivorous  habit  pre- 
vails and  the  feet  are  usually  much  modified  from  the  funda- 
mental form.  The  structure  of  the  feet  furnishes  the  most 
obvious  distinction  upon  which  the  group  is  founded,  since  all 
the  Artiodactyla  split  the  hoof.  The  two  halves  of  the  hoof 
represent  the  third  and  fourth  digits,  while  the  first  and  fifth 
digits  in  the  living  forms  are  not  functional,  but  hang  as  use- 
less pendants  above  the  hoof  as  seen  in  domestic  cattle.  The 
ancestral  forms,  so  far  as  they  have  been  discovered,  had  at 
most  four  subequal  toes,  the  first  digit  Ipeing  always  absent. 
The  hippopotamus  may  be  reckoned  as  among  the  archaic 
types  of  the  group  and  differs  from  all  other  recent  forms  in 
still  retaining  the  four  toes.  In  this  case,  as  in  ancestral  forms, 
the  bones  of  the  forearm  and  lower  leg  and  the  metacarpals  and 
metatarsals  are  distinct  and  the  paired  bones  are  nearly  equally 
developed. 

In  the  swine  a  remarkable  reduction  is  encountered,  for  the 
fifth  and  second  digits  are  shortened  and  the  bones  reduced. 
The  bones  are,  however,  still  distinct  and  the  hoofs  are  still 
carried  as  reminders  of  the  earlier  conditions. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  255 

In  the  peccaries  of  South  America  the  reduction  is  carried 
still  farther.  The  inner  toe  of  the  hind  foot  disappears  and 
the  metatarsals  are  partially  united.  In  the  genus  Hyomos- 
chus  (Chevrotain)  a  similar  reduction  is  exhibited.  Tibia  and 
fibula  are  present  and  distinct,  the  metacarpals  are  distinct, 
while  the  corresponding  bones  in  the  posterior  extremity  are 
united  more  or  less  throughout.  All  other  living  ruminants 
(and  the  Hyomosckus  is  a  very  old  type,  its  bones  being  found 
in  the  Eocene  period)  have  the  metatarsals  and  metacarpals 
fully  united,  only  a  groove  indicating  the  line  where  the  two 
bones  have  united  during  the  embryonic  life  of  the  animal. 
Giraffes  exhibit  the  last  stage  in  the  process.  Here  the  bones 
are  fully  united  and  the  accessory  hoofs  disappear.  The  history 
thus  preserved  in  a  fragmentary  way  in  the  living  examples  of 
the  Artiodactyla  is  completed  and  supplemented  in  the  records 
of  paleontology. 

We  discover  a  marked  similarity  with  the  history  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  horse  in  the  above  account  of  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  hoof  in  the  even- toed  group. 

The  primatwe  artiodactyle,  it  may  be  presumed,  had  44 
teeth,  three  incisors,  one  canine,  and  seven  teeth  in  the  molar 
series  in  each  half  of  the  jaws.  Even  in  ruminants  which 
suffer  the  greatest  reduction  from  the  type,  the  rudiments  of 
these  teeth  are  found  in  the  embryo  and  simply  fail  to  develop. 

In  the  Eocene  period  there  existed  a  curious  form  called 
Anoplotherium  which  had  a  full  set  of  teeth  in  an  unbroken 
series.  A  reduction  in  the  number  of  teeth  during  the  ages  is 
not  less  remarkable  than  that  of  the  digits  as  above  described, 
and  here  too  modern  representatives  of  the  various  stages  of  the 
process  remain.  In  the  swine  there  are  six  incisors  above  and 
below,  the  hippopotamus  has  but  four  above,  the  camel  only 
two,  and  cattle  none.  The  reduction  in  the  number  of  the 
teeth  and  especially  in  the  canines  is  indicative  of  a  change 
from  omnivorous  to  herbivorous  habits.  It  would  seem,  more- 
over, that  when  the  incisors  cease  to  be  developed  into  weapons 
either  offensive  or  defensive,  there  is  a  tendency  to  produce 
excresences  from  the  skull  above — in  other  words  horns,  ant- 
lers, or  their  equivalents. 

The  number  and  structure  of  the  teeth  varies  with  the  com- 
plexity of  the  digestive  organs.  In  the  swine  and  other  o  mniv- 
orous  ungulates  the  stomach  is  simple  while  in  the  ruminants 
it  is  divided  more  or  less  fully  into  four  sacks  or  compartments 
which  have  various  functions.  The  most  important  parts  are, 


256  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

first,  the  rumen  into  which  the  food  is  taken  as  it  is  eaten.  The 
net  is  a  shallow  sack  so  placed  that  the  coarse  unmasticated 
food  is  directed  into  the  rumen,  while  after  it  is  regurgitated 
and  finely  comminuted  it  passes  through  a  groove  into  the  leaf 
stomach  and  finally  into  the  fourth  compartment  where  the 
gastric  juice  is  freely  mingled  and  the  digestion  proper  begins. 

Intelligence  is  not  great,  as  a  rule  in  the  group,  the  brain 
being  small  and  the  organs  of  sense  only  moderately  developed. 
In  some  species  which  are  little  able  to  protect  themselves,  the 
senses  of  sight  and  smell  are  highly  developed  and  caution  and 
powers  of  flight  supply  the  place  of  craft  and  other  mental  en- 
dowments. The  habits  are  comparatively  uniform  and  are 
chiefly  interesting  on  account  of  the  various  ways  in  which  they 
are  made  to  minister  to  man's  necessities. 

It  is  almost  as  difficult  to  understand  how  civilized  nations 
would  do  without  kine,  sheep,  goats,  swine,  etc. ,  as  to  imagine 
a  Laplander  living  without  the  reindeer  or  a  desert  Arab  with- 
out the  camel.  I  need  not  refer  to  the  sport  furnished  by  the 
various  deer  and  antelopes  the  world  over. 

The  placenta  is  diffuse  and  the  mammae  are  ventral  or  in- 
guinal. 

The  swine  constitute  a  very  old  group  and,  like  many  another 
old  family,  have  preserved  tolerably  connected  records  from 
the  earliest  times.  Even  in  the  Eocene  period  we  find  swine 
with  two  hoofs  (Entelodon,  Choerotherium,etc.,)  while  in  the  mid 
die  Miocene  members  of  the  modern  genus  Sus  are  encountered 
In  the  Eocene  gypsum  beds  of  Montmartre  are  four-toed  swine 
of  the  genera  Choeropotamus  and  Hyopotamus.  In  the  Miocene  an 
offshoot  furnished  origin  to  the  comparatively  recent  family  of 
the  Hippopotamidce.  The  genus  Merycopotamus,  remains  of  which 
are  found  in  India,  afforded  a  transition  to  true  river-horses 
with  six  incisors.  During  the  quarternary  the  various  forms, 
some  of  which  were  hardly  larger  than  a  hog,  others  larger 
than  the  leviathan  of  the  Nile,  disported  themselves  in  the 
shallows  of  tHe  inland  seas  of  Europe  as  far  as  Ireland.  A 
colder  period  drove  them  across  what  is  now  the  Mediterran- 
ean and  from  similar  causes  they  became  extinct  in  India  also. 
At  present,  the  two  species  are  strictly  confined  to  the  con- 
tinent of  Africa. 

Two  distinct  geneological  trees  are  required  in  the  study  of 
the  swine  proper.  In  America  there  seems  never  to  have  ex- 
isted any  animals  of  the  genera  Sus,  Porcus,  or  Hippopotamus 
or  even  of  related  genera. 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  257 

Nevertheless  herds  of  wild  swine  have  doubtless  roamed  over 
parts  of  Minnesota  as  in  the  states  farther  west.  Since  the 
Eocene  period  America  has  had  a  group  of  swine  like  animals 
in  general  appearance  like  those  of  Europe  though  quite  differ- 
ent in  details.  The  peccary  of  South  America  is  at  the 
hither  end  of  this  line  of  descent,  while  at  the  other  stands  the 
genus  Eohyus  of  the  Eocene,  followed  by  Helohyus  of  the  middle 
Eocene,  Perchcerus  of  the  lower  Miocene,  Tinohyus  of  the  upper 
Miocene,  Platygonus,  etc. ,  of  the  Quarternary.  It  may  perhaps 
be  interesting  to  notice  that,  as  usual,  America  has  "gotten 
the  start  of"  the  old  world  and  our  hogs  exhibit  a  greater 
degree  of  specialization  than  those  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and 
the  four- toed  form  has  quite  gone  out  of  style. 

We  have  already  noticed  that  the  family  Tragulidce  as  re- 
presented by  the  tfyomoschus  seems  to  have  persisted 
with  little  change  from  the  upper  Eocene  to  the  present 
time.  Deer  and  antelope  were  differentiated  in  the  Miocene. 
During  the  Pliocene  and  Quarternary  gigantic  deer  ranged  over 
Europe  and  America,  whose  direct  descendants  are  seen  in  the 
elk  or  more  properly  Canadian  stag  and  the  stag  of  Europe. 
The  gigantic  Irish  elk  lived  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
In  America  the  Casoryx,  characterized  by  a  non-fusion  of  the 
metatarsals,  existed  in  the  Pliocene.  Antelopes  ranged  over 
Europe  in  immense  herds  in  late  geologic  periods.  During  the 
Ice  period  both  America  and  Europe  were  over-run  by  reindeer, 
moose  deer  (properly  elk)  and  musk  oxen. 

The  ancestors  of  the  domestic  cattle  are  found  in  Pliocene 
rocks  of  Asia  and  Europe,  the  type  being  entirely  absent  from 
America. 

The  European  buffalo  is  apparently  earlier  than  the  ox,  as 
indicated  by  fossil  remains.  Asia  has  remained  the  home  of 
the  kine  group  whence  indirectly  our  domestic  ox  must,  in  all 
probability,  be  derived  from  three  species  living  at  no  very 
distant  date  in  Europe.  The' Bos  primogenius  is  said  to  have 
been  partially  domesticated  in .  Europe  during  the  middle  ages 
and  is  described  as  black  with  a  white  stripe  above.  Lineal 
descendants  of  this  form  are  said  to  still  exist  in  a  half  wild 
condition  in  Scotland.  Bos  frontosus,  an  extinct  species  with  a 
broad  concave  forehead  is  said  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the 
short-horn  breeds  and  Bos  brachyceros  of  the  spotless  and  large- 
horned  breeds.  Africa  has  no  endemic  species  of  ox,  the 
probability  being  that  the  zebu  has  been  imported  thither. 


258  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

In  Egypt  in  ancient  times  three  varieties  were  domesticated 
which  must  certainly  have  been  imported.  Sheep  and  goats 
seem  to  have  sprung  from  some  forms  of  antelope — indeed  the 
musk  ox  may  be  said  to  be  a  transition  between  goats,  ante- 
lopes and  the  oxen.  None  of  these  are  endemic  in  America 
but  we  now  have  one  representative  of  each  in  the  Rocky 
mountain  goat,  big-horn  sheep,  prong-horn  antelope,  and  musk 
ox.  The  bison  seems  to  have  been  individualized  in  America 
in  the  Pliocene  and  in  Europe  a  form  appeared  in  the  Quarter- 
nary  which  forms  the  direct  transition  to  the  present  European 
bison. 

The  camels  are  of  American  origin.  The  genus  Parameryx 
appeared  in  Eocene  and  the  peculiarities  became  more  marked 
in  later  forms.  The  llama  once  ranged  over  most  of  North 
America.  The  camel  appeared  in  Asia  in  the  Miocene  and 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  Africa  at  a  very  early  day. 

The  primary  sub-divisions  of  Artiodactyla  are  two: — Poly- 
dactyla,  including  the  hippopotami  and  the  swine  and,  the  Bi- 
dactyla  or  Euminantia  (cud-chewers.) 

The  first  of  these  groups  has,  as  we  have  seen,  no  repres- 
entatives within  our  limits  and  the  number  of  ruminants  is  very 
small.  At  present  four  species  of  the  family  Cervidce  are  the 
only  members  of  the  vast  group  of  ungulates  found  in  Minne- 
sota. 

FAMILY  BOVIDJE. 

GENUS  BISON,  SMITH. 

The  two  living  species  of  this  genus  are,  strangely  enough, 
found  one  in  America  the  other  in  Europe  and  Western  Asia. 
The  European  species  seems  at  present  to  exist  only  in  the 
great  forests  of  Lithuania  and  in  the  inaccessible  regions  of 
the  Caucasus.  Our  own  species  is  now  limited  to  an  almost 
equally  limited  area  and  without  the  official  protection  afforded 
the  European  species  will  soon  become  extinct. 

Externally  the  bisons  are  distinquished  by  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  anterior  extremities,  especially  the  "hump"  over 
the  shoulders,  the  relatively  light  posterior  part  of  the  body, 
broad,  convex  forehead,  short  conical  horns  with  a  decided 
upward  curvature,  and  the  shaggy  coat  and  heavy  mane.  The 
nearest  relative  is  found  in  the  yak — Bis  (Poephagus)  grun- 
niens.  The  gaur  and  gayal — B.  gaurus  and  B.  frontalis  are  also 
nearer  than  members  of  the  restricted  genus  Bos. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 


259 


The  forehead  in  the  bison  is  actually  and  relatively  wider 
than  in  the  ox,  the  horns  also  are  set  farther  forward  while 
the  plane  of  the  occiput  is  semicircular  forming  an  obtuse 
instead  of  acute  angle  with  the  forehead.  The  intermaxillar- 
ies  are  triangular  and  shorter  than  the  nasals.  The  spines  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  elongated,  the  limb  bones  are  less  mas- 
sive than  in  Bos  and  the  cannon  bone  of  the  hind  limb  is  rela- 
tively longer. 


Fig.  19.  Bison  europeus. 

While  a  great  deal  has  been  written  upon  the  genealogy  of 
the  bison  the  diversity  of  opinion  is  very  striking.  Ruetimeyer, 
Brandt,  Lilljeborg,  Vogt,  Allen,  Leidy  and  Schmidt  have  all 
given  attention  to  the  subject  without  placing  it  beyond  dis- 
pute. It  would  seem  most  probable  that  the  earliest  bison 
properly  so-called  was  the  gigantic  B.  latifrons  which  may  have 
had  a  circumpolar  distribution.  Since  this  species  is  found  in 
America  only  thus  far  it  may  be  that  America  is  the  true  place 


260  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

of  origin  of  the  genus.  Two  species  of  smaller  but  still  con- 
siderable size  then  appeared,  one  in  ^Europe  the  other  in  Am- 
erica. B.  prisons  of  Europe  and  B.  antiquus  of  America  may 
reasonably  be  assumed  as  the  forerunners  of  the  existing 
aurochs  and  the  American  bison.  These  differ  from  each  other 
apparently  more  than  the  two  earlier  species  from  which  they 
sprang. 

The  B.  latifrons  must  have  been  of  enormous  size,  the  horns 
being  in  the  male  not  less  than  six  feet  long.  The  horn  cores 
at  the  base  measure  20  inches,  the  forehead  being  over  fifteen 
inches  wide.  The  existing  remains  were  derived  from  Ken- 
tucky, Texas  and  Mississippi,  associated  in  some  instances 
with  the  mastodon  and  horse,  as  well  as  other  extinct  species. 

Bison  antiquus  is  known  from  quite  a  variety  of  remains,  but 
so  imperfect  are  they  all  that  it  remains  a  question  whether 
they  are  not  specifically  identical  with  B.  latifrons  or  perhaps 
with  the  extinct  European  B.  priscus.  The  evidence  seems  to 
favor  the  existence  of  a  species  smaller  than  B.  latifrons,  but 
still  of  greater  size  than  our  living  species  characterized  by 
larger  proportional  horn  cores  and  other  differences.  The 
remains  referred  to  have  been  found  in  California,  Alaska  and 
Kentucky,  and  in  connection  with  extinct  elephants,  tapirs  and 
horses.  For  a  discussion  of  the  evidence  bearing  on  these 
matters,  refer  to  Allen's  monograph,  forming  Part  II,  of  Vol. 
I,  of  the  Kentucky  Geological  Survey  Memoirs.  It  would  be 
of  interest  if  it  were  possible  to  determine  from  what  time  our 
modern  species  dates,  yet,  although  the  species  is  found  fossil 
in  the  bone  caves  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  deposits  of  Big-bone 
Lick,  Kentucky,  we  only  can  conclude  that  its  remains  are 
always  later  than  those  of  the  mammoth  and  mastodon,  and  do 
not  reach  a  great  antiquity.  Prof.  Shaler  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  bison  did  not  co-exist  with  the  mound-builders. 

Bison  americanus  GMELIN. 

Plate   IV. 

We  rely  in  many  details  of  the  description  upon  that  given 
by  J.  A.  Allen  and  refer  the  reader  to  his  monograph  for  bibli- 
ography. 

An  adult  male  measures  about  nine  feet  from  the  muzzle  to 
the  root  of  the  tail — thirteen  and  one-half  feet  to  the  end  of  the 
tail.  The  female  measures  six  and  one-half  feet  to  the  inser- 


UNIVERSITY 


MAMMALS   OP  MINNESOTA.  261 

tion  of  the  tail,  and  has  a  shorter  terminal  pencil  upon  the  tail.  * 
The  male  stands  nearly  six  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  includ- 
ing the  protuberance,  or  "hump,"  which  is  so  characteristic  a 
factor  in  the  ensemble  of  the  animal.  The  female  is  twelve 
inches  shorter  and  is  but  four  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  hip, 
while  the  male  is  four  and  two-thirds.  A  large  male  may  reach 
a  weight  of  nearly  a  ton,  while  the  females  range  from  one 
thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds.  The  horns  are  short  and 
in  the  males  are  very  thick  at  the  base,  curving  rapidly  up- 
ward, outward  and  recurving  to  the  end,  becoming  rapidly  con- 
tracted to  the  sharp  apex.  In  the  female  the  base  is  smaller 
and  the  horn  is  more  slender  and  curved.  The  muzzle  is  broad 
and  naked  as  in  other  Bovidce.  The  hoofs'  are  short,  broad 
and  rounded,  those  of  the  hind  feet  being  most  pointed.  The 
pelage  is  woolly  and  dense,  furnishing  a  valuable  and  much 
prized  article  of  commerce.  The  prevailing  color  is  a  dark 
brown,  darkest  on  the  head,  legs  and  tail,  the  long  hairs  of  the 
latter  being  restricted  to  the  terminal  pencil.  In  summer  the 
color  is  lighter,  and  in  old  individuals  it  becomes  permanently 
bleached  out  to  a  yellowish  grizzle.  Young  animals  are  dark 
brown,  though  the  calf  is  lighter.  The  "hump  "  and  head  are 
covered  by  a  mane  of  considerable  length.  The  chin  and 
throat  are  also  bearded.  The  mane  extends  down  the  median 
line  above  nearly  to  the  tail,  and  there  are  tufts  of  shaggy  hair 
about  the  legs.  The  female,  though  smaller  is  not  noticeably 
different  from  the  male  in  color.  Although  albinism  is  rare, 
specimens  are  sometimes  found  partly  or  nearly  entirely 
white.  Such  a  specimen  is  now  (1886)  on  exhibition  in  the 
museum  of  the  State  University  of  Minnesota.  Black  or 
melanic  forms  also  occur. 

The  American  bison  is  smaller  than  the  European  but  has 
larger  shoulders.  It  seems  to  be  more  highly  specialized.  The 
pelvis  is  much  smaller  and  the  tail  shorter  in  B.  americanus. 
Allen  finds  the  ratio  of  humerus  and  radius  to  femur  and  tibia 
as  75  -  83  to  100  in  B.  americanus,  and  as  78-84  to  100  in  B.  euro- 
pens.  The  only  constant  differences  in  the  skull  seem  to  consist 
in  a  greater  massiveness  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  of  the  aur- 
ochs. The  individual  variation  is  as  great  as  in  most  of  the 
larger  mammals.  This  is  supplemented  by  a  tendency  to  form 
local  varieties,  two  of  which  are  sometimes  recognized,  the 
wood  buffalo  and  mountain  buffalo.  The  former  is. said  to  be 

*  A  curious  error  occurs  in  the  explicit  measurements  given  by  Allen,  making  the 
total  length  of  the  tail  four  inches  less  than  that  of  its  pencil  of  hairs. 


262  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

rather  larger  and  darker  colored  than  the  bison  of  the  plain. 
The  mountain  variety  is  not  probably  essentially  different. 

The  bison  is  a  perpetual  nomad;  indeed,  the  gregariousness 
of  the  animal  makes  this  a  necessary  corollary.  The  migra- 
tions of  the  herd  are  caused  by  seasonal  changes  which  drive 
them  northward,  or  toward  the  mountains  at  one  time  and  in 
the  opposite  direction  at  another,  but  the  details  of  their  wan- 
derings are  controlled  by  chance  variations  in  food  and  water. 
The  vast  herd,  often  thousands  strong,  consumes  and  destroys 
large  areas  of  herbage  in  an  incredibly  short  time  and  the 
mammoth  pastures  of  our  continent  were  none  too  large  for  the 
buffalo  in  their  best  estate.  The  prairie  fires  and  inroads  of 
locusts  were  frequent  causes  of  change  of  base,  while  the  posi- 
tion of  streams  and  springs  acted  as  determinants  upon  the 
course  of  the  moving  column.  Before  the  encroachment  of 
settlements  and  other  interference  the  major  migrations  were 
so  constant  and  uniform  that  the  approximate  date  of  the  ar- 
rival and  departure  of  the  herd  could  be  predicted  quite  closely. 
Like  most  animals  accustomed  to  travel  in  large  companies  the 
buffalo  loses  to  a  large  degree  its  sense  of  individual  respon- 
sibility, and  acts  but  as  a  member  of  the  community,  rushing 
blindly  on  in  case  of  danger,  impelled  by  a  common  instinct, 
and  frequently  plunging  headlong  into  dangers  which  an  indi- 
vidual alone  would  avoid.  They  are  said  to  evince  great  dex- 
terity in  climbing  and  descending  steep  banks  and  make  good 
headway  over  steep  ground,  although  generally  choosing  the 
most  direct  and  level  routes.  When  upon  their  migrations 
herds  frequently  cross  large  rivers,  buffeting  a  rapid,  ice-filled 
current  with  undaunted  courage.  At  times  great  losses  are 
suffered  in  the  crossing  of  such  streams,  especially  when  great 
herds  crowd  upon  the  ice.  Stupidity  and  •  'bull-headedness, " 
which  are  marked  characteristics  of  all  bovines,  seem  to  be  un- 
usually developed  in  the  bison,  and  in  the  exhibition  of  these 
traits  it  gives  evidence  of  what  in  another  animal  might  be 
regarded  as  courage.  In  reality,  however,  the  buffalo  is  timid 
and  distrustful.  A  very  remarkable  trait  is  repeatedly  referred 
to  by  those  familiar  with  its  habits.  The  animal  is  not  stopped 
by  any  danger  in  front  but  is  frequently  thrown  into  great  con- 
fusion by  unwonted  objects  in  the  rear,  as  the  incident  given 
by  Colonel  Dodge,  in  the  Chicago  Inter-Ocean,  1875,  will  illus- 
trate. 

"The  winter  of  1871-72  was  unusually  severe  in  Kansas. 
The  ponds  and  smaller  streams  to  the  north  were  all  frozen 


MAMMALS  OF  MINNESOTA.  ,      263 

solid,  and  the  buffalo  were  forced  to  the  rivers  for  water.  The 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroad  was  then  in  process 
of  construction.  If  a  herd  was  on  the  north  side  of  the  track 
it  would  stand  stupidly  grazing  and  without  symptom  of  alarm, 
though  the  locomotive  passed  within  a  hundred  yards.  If  on 
the  south  side  of  the  track,  even  though  at  a  distance  of  one  or 
two  miles,  the  passage  of  a  train  set  the  whole  herd  in  the 
wildest  commotion.  f  At  its  full  speed  and  utterly  regardless  of 
consequences,  it  would  make  for  the  track,  on  its  line  of  re- 
treat. If  the  train  happened  not  to  be  in  its  path  it  crossed  the 
track  and  stopped,  satisfied.  If  the  train  was  in  the  way,  each 
individual  buffalo  went  at  it  with  the  desperation  of  despair, 
plunging  against  or  between  locomotive  and  cars,  just  as  the 
blind  madness  chanced  to  take  them.  Numbers  were  killed, 
but  numbers  still  pressed  on  only  to  stop  and  stare  as  soon  as 
the  obstacle  was  passed."  But  notwithstanding  the  traits 
largely  resulting  from  the  communism  in  which  the  animal 
lives  they  are  balanced  by  others  representing  the  virtues  be- 
longing to  social  existence.  The  buffalo  is  no  wise  lacking  in 
evidences  of  affection  and  parental  solicitude. 

The  bulls  invariably  range  themselves  about  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  herd  while  the  cows  and  calves  remain  in  the  cen- 
ter. The  larger  herds  when  feeding  break  up  into  smaller 
groups,  which  preserve  the  same  arrangement  in  obedience  to 
instinct.  It  appears  that  the  notion  long  prevalent  that  cer- 
tain old  bulls  stand  as  sentries  upon  the  outskirts  of  the  herd 
is  fallaceous,  most  observers  claiming  that  it  is  the  females 
with  anxiety  quickened  by  the  maternal  instinct,  which  are 
usually  first  to  perceive  danger.  The  picture  presented  by  a 
huge  composite  herd  when  alarmed,  uniting,  forming  into  a 
solid  column  and  plunging  across  the  plain,  is  grand  indeed, 
while  hardly  less  interesting  is  the  sight,  alas,  to  be  seen  no 
more,  of  thousands  of  God's  cattle  grazing  in  undisturbed  quiet 
on  their  appointed  hills.  Many  incidents  have  been  related  of 
the  devotion  of  the  buffalo  cow  to  her  offspring  in  danger, 
while  the  contrary  reports  seem  to  be  due  to  circumstances  oc- 
casioned by  the  dominant  social  instinct  where  the  individual 
was  lost  in  the  social  instinct. 

In  some  cases  it  is  the  males  upon  whom  the  office  of  protec- 
tion devolves,  especially  in  case  of  attack  by  wolves.  Wolves 
were  the  only  animals  molesting  the  bison  until  the  advent  of 
man,  and  before  their  numbers  were  so  reduced  by  hunters 
these  marauders  constantly  harrassed  the  herds.  Indeed,  it 


264  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

seems  not  improbable  that  the  habit  of  going  in  herds  may 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  necessity  of  protection  against  these 
enemies.  When  separated  from  the  herd  the  mother  was  often 
obliged  to  pass  the  night  in  sleepless  vigil,  pacing  about  her 
sleeping  calf.  The  following  extract  from  a  letter  from  Mr. 
Upham  is  suggestive  -in  this  connection : 

i  "When  this  part  of  the  state  was  examined  in  1881,  the  dis- 
appearance of  these  animals  was  so  recent ^that  their  bones,  es- 
pecially their  skulls,  were  frequently  seen  on  the  prairie.  In 
many  places,  also,  rings  of  taller  and  greener  grass  than  the 
ordinary  prairie  sward,  were  observed,  having  a  width  of  five 
or  six  feet,  and  forming  a  circle  from  two  to  six  rods  in  diam- 
eter. According  to  Mr.  James  Nolan,  of  McCauleyville,  these 
mark  a  circuit  tramped  by  buffalo  cows  while  walking  around 
their  calves  at  night  to  guard  them  from  besieging  wolves. 
Occasionally  a  half  circle  of  such  grass  was  seen,  and  this  was 
said  by  Mr.  Nolan  to  be  be  where  a  lone  buffalo  guarded  her 
calf  from  a  single  wolf,  which  staid  on  one  side  through  the 
night,  while  the  buffalo  walked  back  and  forth  in  a  half -circle. " 
Colonel  Dodge  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  way  in  which 
a  party  of  bulls  rescued  and  brought  safely  out  of  the  jaws  of 
the  wolves  a  newly  born  calf.  Wolves  do  not  confine  their  at- 
tacks to  the  young,  but  harrass  and  destroy  the  old  and 
wounded.  Catlin  draws  a  pathetic  picture  of  the  old  and  de- 
crepit bull  standing  on  the  defensive  against  an  overpowering 
number  of  wolves,  even  after  eyes  and  much  of  the  flesh  of  the 
head  had  been  torn  away.  Evidently  the  sluggish  and  stupid 
buffalo  could  not  long  expect  to  escape  the  ruthless  mounted 
hunter.  The  white  man  with  his  firearms  has  rapidly  brought 
the  whole  race  to  the  verge  of  extinction. 

In  most  respects  the  habits  of  the  bison  are  like  those  of  do- 
mestic cattle.  The  propensity  to  rub  upon  any  suitable  object 
has  resulted  in  the  polishing  of  the  few  projecting  rocks  and 
trees  found  upon  the  prairies.  This  effect  has  sometimes  been 
referred  to  the  action  of  blown  sand.  Mr.  Upham  kindly  furn- 
ishes notes  from  the  Red  river  valley,  which  I  transcribe: 
"The  few  large  boulders,  three  to  five  feet  or  sometimes  more  in 
diameter,  which  are  found  jutting  above  the  surface  of  the 
prairie  plain  of  the  Red  river  valley  (excepting  within  a  few 
miles  next  to  the  river,  where  the  surface  is  alluvial  clay )  and 
through  the  west  part  of  Minnesota  further  south,  are  usually 
surrounded  to  a  distance  of  five  to  ten  feet  from  them  by  a 
slight  hollow,  about  a  foot  below  the  general  surface,  but  there 


MAMMALS   OP  MINNESOTA.  265 

is  no  perceptible  ridge  outside  the  hollow.  This  feature  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  pawing  of  buffaloes  in  former  years  while 
rubbing  upon  the  boulders,  the  dust  loosened  in  this  manner  be- 
ing blown  away  by  the  winds.  Mr.  Pierre  Bottineau,  a  very  ex- 
perienced and  observing  voyageur  and  guide,  still  living  at  Red 
Lake  Falls,  attributes  the  polished  surface  of  such  projecting 
boulders,  and  of  the  ledges  of  rock  in  Pipestone  and  Rock  coun- 
ties to  rasping  by  the  hair  and  horns  of  buffaloes  in  this  way; 
which  seems  more  probable,  than  that  this  polishing  was 
done  by  wind-blown  particles  of  sand  and  dust.  (See  Geol.  Nat. 
Hist.  Surv.  Minn.,  vol.  i,  pp.  63,  66  and  541;  1884).  Catlin's 
descriptions  make  it  certain  that  the  polished  rock-surfaces  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Pipestone  quarry  were  much  more  noticeable 
in  his  time  than  now. "  Similar  observations  and  explanations  are 
recorded  by  Dr.  George  M.  Dawson  in  the  region  of  the  Bow 
and  Belly  rivers  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  in  British  America, 
where  he  states  that  "all  the  larger  boulders  of  the  district  are 
surrounded  by  a  shallow  saucerlike  depression,  caused  by  the 
pawing  of  the  buffalo,  and  their  angles  are  worn  quite  smooth 
and  glossy  by  the  rubbing  of  these  animals  upon  them."  (Rep. 
Prog.  Geol.  Surv.  Canada,  1882-'84,  p.  149c.) 

Mr.  Upham  also  writes,  "another  notable  feature  ascribed 
to  buffaloes  is  the  very  rough  surface  often  found  on  areas  of 
slightly  moist  land  in  the  Red  river  valley,  the  ground  being 
indented  by  many  hollows  and  holes  five  to  twenty  feet  across, 
and  one  to  five  feet  deep,  with  steep  sides.  These  are  com- 
monly called  'buffalo-wallows'."  This  propensity  to  wallow 
and  roll  in  the  mire  reminds  one  of  the  buffalo  proper  of  warm 
regions,  and  is  not  found  in  the  animals  of  the  genus  Bos. 
Allen  says,  ' '  their  especial  delight  is  to  roll  in  che  mud,  or  in 
'wallowing'  as  it  is  called,  from  which  exercise  they  arise 
looking  more  like  an  animated  mass  of  mud  than  their  former 
selves.  The  object  of  these  peculiar  ablutions  is  doubtless  to 
cool  their  heated  bodies  and  to  free  themselves  from  trouble- 
some insects.  When  not  finding  a  muddy  pool  ready  at  hand, 
an  old  bull  proceeds  to  prepare  one.  Finding  in  the  low  parts 
of  the  prairies,  says  Catlin,  a  little  stagnant  water  amongst  the 
grass,  and  the  ground  underneath  soft  and  saturated  with 
moisture,  an  old  bull  lowers  himself  upon  one  knee,  plunges 
his  horns  into  the  ground,  throwing  up  the  earth  and  soon 
making  an  excavation  into  which  the  water  trickles,  forming 
for  him  in  a  short  time  a  cool  and  comfortable  bath,  in  which 
he  wallows  '  like  a  hog  in  the  mire.'  In  this  'delectable  lava ' 
-17 


266  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

he  throws  himself  flat  on  his  side,  and  then  forcing  himself 
violently  around  with  his  horns,  his  feet,  and  huge  hump, 
plows  up  the  ground  still  more,  thus  enlarging  the  pool  till  he 
at  length  becomes  nearly  immersed.  Besmeared  with  a  coat- 
ing of  the  pasty  mixture,  he  at  length  rises,  changed  into  a 
'monster  of  mud  and  ugliness.'  with  the  black  mud  dripping 
from  his  shaggy  mane  and  thick  woolly  coat.  The  mud  soon 
drying  upon  his  body  insures  him  hours  of  immunity  from  the 
attack  of  insects.  Others  follow  in  succession,  having  waited 
their  turns  to  enjoy  the  luxury;  each  rolls  and  wallows  in  a 
similar  way,  adding  a  little  to  the  dimensions  of  the  hole,  and 
carrying  away  a  share  of  the  adhesive  mud.  By  this  means 
an  excavation  is  eventually  made  having  a  diameter  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  feet,  and  two  feet  in  depth."  Similar  excavations 
are  made  upon  the  dry  prairie  and  receive  the  same  name. 
However  formed,  these  cavities  serve  a  useful  purpose  as  reser- 
voirs of  rain  water  for  man  and  beast,  and  in  not  a  few  cases 
during  the  exciting  Indian  wars  such  wallows  have  formed 
natural  rifle  pits  in  which  a  small  band  has  been  able  to  resist 
the  onslaught  of  a  much  superior  force  of  savages.  The  wal- 
lows may  be  detected  from  a  distance  by  the  greener  and 
ranker  grass  of  the  margin. 

Rutting  takes  place  in  July  and  August  and  one,  or  at  most 
two  calves  are  dropped  in  March  to  June.  The  young  consort 
with  the  cows  and  younger  bulls,  but  do  not  form  separate 
herds.  Conflicts  plentifully  intermixed  with  sonorous  bellowing 
are  frequent  but  so  short  are  the  horns  and  so  tough  and  shaggy 
the  head  that  serious  results  are  rare.  Even  when  enraged 
the  buffalo  is  rarely  the  formidable  and  pertinacious  foe  repre- 
sented in  penny  books  of  adventure. 

The  buffalo  is  easily  tamed  and  the  cross  with  the  domestic 
cattle  is  fertile.  Great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  their 
availability  for  domestic  purposes.  Some  suppose  that  great 
improvement  in  domestic  breeds  of  cattle  could  be  secured 
by  crossing  with  the  wild  relatives  but  the  preponderance  of 
evidence  seems  rather  to  negative  the  assertion. 

The  attempt  was  made  at  one  time  in  Virginia  but  the  results 
were  unfavorable.  It  would  seem  that  a  race  of  draught  oxen 
might  be  reared  from  this  stock  but  no  persistent  experiments 
have  been  made.  Sibley  speaks  of  a  man  who  in  the  Red  river 
valley  had  broken  a  bull  to  the  plow  and  performed  the  whole 
labor  of  the  field  with  him  alone. 


MAMMALS   OP  MINNESOTA.  267 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  cross  and  the  size 
is  increased,  but  the  beef  is  rather  inferior  and  milking  quali- 
ties have  not  been  tested,  while  the  traits  of  the  wild  animal  to 
some  extent  persist.  It  is  very  desirable,  however,  that  the 
experiment  should  be  more  carefully  made.  Since  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  project  is  sufficiently  alluring  to  attract  private 
enterprise  it  would  seem  legitimate  for  the  government  to  estab- 
lish preserves  where  such  experiments  should  be  systematically 
undertaken. 

In  this  connection  the  following  clipped  from  the  Week's 
Current  of  January,  1887,  may  be  of  interest: 

'  'A  gentleman  is  now  successfully  domesticating  the  American 
buffalo  at  Stony  Mountain,  Manitoba.  Starting  his  herd  is  1878 
with  five  calves,  it  now  numbers  sixty-one  head;  the  greater 
number  pure  buffaloes,  the  rest  half-breeds.  In  January  they 
were  all  sleek  and  fat,  and  yet,  they  were  then  living  on  the 
open  prairie  and  feeding  on  the  prairie  grasses  covered  by 
snow.  At  this  time  the  snow  was  deep  and  the  thermometer 
had  for  a  long  time  registered  29°  or  more  below  zero.  When 
a  blizzard  comes  on,  the  animals  lie  down  together,  with  their 
backs  to  the  wind,  and  allow  the  snow  to  drift  over  them,  so 
that  under  the  combined  protection  of  their  own  wool  and  the 
snow  they  are  quite  warm.  Not  one  of  the  herd  has  ever 
exhibited  the  slightest  symptom  of  disease,  although  the  only 
care  they  receive  is  occasional  watching  to  prevent  them  from 
straying  away.  Thus  winter  and  summer,  they  live  and  thrive 
on  the  bare  prairie  with  numbers  undiminished  by  any  of  the 
ordinary  cattle  scourges  and  with  expenses  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. When  the  present  herd  is  sufficiently  increased,  it  is  in- 
tended to  divide  it  among  several  prairie  ranges  where  once  the 
buffalo  roamed  at  will." 

Before  the  introduction  of  horses  and  fire -arms  from  Europe 
the  pursuit  of  the  buffalo  was  attended  with  exhibitions  of  skill 
and  prowess  no  longer  requisite.  But  even  then  numbers  of 
the  attacking  party  and  the  unsuspicious  nature  of  the  game 
robbed  the  chase  of  much  of  its  interest  and  made  it  too  much 
like  wholesale  butchery. 

On  the  prairies  of  the  west  the  season  of  the  buffalo  hunt 
held  a  marked  place  in  the  Indian  calendar.  Prolonged  prepar- 
ations were  made  and  it  issued  in  festivity  and  unusual  activity. 
In  many  places  the  herd  was  "corraJled"  by  fire  and  the  ani- 
mals, blinded  and  alarmed  by  the  flames,  rushed  unsuspectingly 
upon  the  hunters  who  had  their  own  way  with  them.  In  other 


268  BULLETIN  NO     VII. 

places  the  animals  were  impounded  and  destroyed  at  leisure. 
The  pound  was  an  enclosed  area  about  125  feet  in  diameter, 
formed  by  posts  planted  at  regular  intervals,  guarded  by  the 
women  and  children  of  the  tribe.  Series  of  posts  diverged 
from  the  opening  and  served  to  direct  the  herd  toward  the 
latter.  Several  hundred  buffaloes  were  frequently  enclosed 
when  the  slaughter  began.  Deprived  of  even  the  usual  degree 
of  intelligence  by  fear,  the  enraged  animals  assisted  in  their  own 
destruction,  though  in  some  cases  an  unusually  adventurous 
bull  forced  an  opening  and  led  the  whole  herd  safely  through 
the  cordon  of  yelling  savages. 

Another  method,  rather  rarely  resorted  to,  was  to  take 
advantage  of  their  stupid  tendency  to  follow  the  leader 
and  lure  the  whole  herd  to  destruction.  An  Indian  dis- 
guised himself  with  a  partially  stuffed  skin  and,  attaching 
himself  to  the  herd  just  as  the  alarm  was  given  on  the  other  side, 
led  the  way  to  a  precipice.  There  he  secreted  himself  in  a 
crevice,  while  the  buffalo  following  were  precipitated  to  the 
bottom.  This  method  naturally  was  attended  with  no  little 
danger  to  the  one  leading  in  it.  Since  the  introduction  of 
horses  sometimes  a  cordon  of  horsemen  was  substituted  for  the 
pen  with  nearly  equally  fatal  results.  The  more  modern 
method  is  for  a  number  of  well  mounted  horsemen  to  strike 
well  into  the  centre  of  the  compact  herd  and  thus  stampede 
them,  after  which  an  indiscriminate  slaughter  is  carried  on  as 
long  as  the  scattering  animals  can  be  pursued.  The  modern 
hunter  follows  the  same  plan  essentially  but  improved  firearms 
and  better  horses  make  it  a  much  more  destructive  matter. 
As  long  as  the  buffalo  still  roamed  over  the  plains  of  Kansas 
and  the  Red  river,  buffalo-hunting  was  a  business  as  well  as  a 
pastime  for  many.  The  pot-hunter  however  preferred  the 
still  hunt  as  more  safe  and  productive.  Buffalo-hunting  has 
always  been  most  wasteful.  The  excitement  is  so  great  that 
neither  reason  nor  fatigue  reminds  even  the  thoughtful  that 
his  sport  is  sheer  improvidence  until  the  last  individual  is 
out  of  reach.  The  Indian  rarely  used  a  tithe  of  the  slain  ani- 
mals and  modern  hunters  have  not  been  less  extravagant.  One 
.man  often  destroyed  thousands  during  a  single  season.  Mr.. 
Allen  in  his  monograph  gives  very  full  statistics  of  the  rate  of 
destruction  of  the  buffalo.  He  says  "at  the  time  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Atchison,  Topekaand  Santa  Fe  railroad  to  Dodge 
City,  which  occurred  Sept.  23,  1872,  the  principal  trade  of  the 
town  consisted  in  the  outfitting  of  hunters  and  exchange:  fon- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  269 

their  game.  The  number  of  hides  shipped  during  a  period  of 
three  months,  beginning  with  this  date,  is  reported  to  have 
been  43,029,  and  the  shipment  of  meat  1,436,290  Ibs.,"  the  num- 
ber killed  around  Fort  Dodge  during  four  months  •  being  esti- 
mated at  over  100,000.  During  1871  hides  and  meat  represent- 
ing over  20,000  individuals  were  shipped  over  the  Kansas 
Pacific  railway.  In  1876  but  few  remained  scattered  about 
their  former  range  in  that  region  but  since  then  these  too 
have,  it  would  seem,  been  entirely  exterminated.  Thous- 
ands were  killed  for  sport  and  many  more  for  no  adequate 
return — perhaps  the  tongue  or  a  dainty  morsel. 

Allen  estimates  the  total  destruction  between  1870  and  1875 
as  not  less  than  two  and  one  half  millions  annually.  This  ex- 
plains the  nearly  complete  extermination  except  in  the  almost 
inaccessible  regions  to  the  far  north.  The  flesh  of  the  buffalo 
when  young  is  tender  and  juicy  but  only  the  tongue  and  flesh 
of  the  hump  are  regarded  as  delicacies.  Buffalo  beef  furnished 
the  material  for  the  manufacture  of  pemmican  for  the  fur 
countries.  It  was  thought  by  the  early  explorers  that  the 
woolly  hair  of  the  buffalo  would  become  an  article  of  commerce. 
The  Indians  spun  and  wove  it  into  a  variety  of  articles  and 
ornaments  but  it  has  never  been  utilized  by  the  whites.  The 
bones  and  even  the  excrement  are  of  value,  the  latter  especi- 
ally, the  so-called  "buffalo-chips"'  have  aided  materially  in  set- 
tling the  treeless  regions.  Without  this  substitute  for  wood  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to  secure  fuel  for  many  a  weary  mile. 

An  exhaustive  study  of  the  former  range  of  the  buffalo  has 
been  made  by  Allen.  They  were  common  in  Minnesota  up  to  a 
comparatively  recent  time.  In  1823  Major  Long  encountered 
thousands  about  Big  Stone  and  Traverse.  In  1844  Captain 
Allen  encountered  herds  in  southwestern  Minnesota.  '  'Seventy- 
five  miles  west  of  the  source  of  the  Des  Moines  we  struck  the 
range  of  buffalo,  and  continued  in  it  to  the  Big  Sioux  river  and 
down  the  river  about  eighty- six  miles."  In  1850,  according  to 
Pope,  buffaloes  were  abundant  between  the  Pembina  and  the 
Cheyenne  rivers.  Stragglers  seem  to  have  visited  the  south- 
western part  of  the  state  as  late  as  1869.  They  were  driven 
out  of  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  before  1835  though 
found  within  fifty  miles  of  St.  Paul  somewhat  later. 

The  location  of  a  midland  route  to  the  Pacific  coast  cut  the 
range  of  the  buffalo  in  two  and  the  completion  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad  made  the  separation  permanent.  The  rapid 
extermination  of  the  buffalo  to  the  south  of  this  line  followed. 


270  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

The  original  habitat  as  laid  down  by  Allen  is  as  follows: 
Beginning  with  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  river,  its 
extension  northward  was  limited  by  the  great  lakes,  while  the 
Alleghanies  may  be  taken  as  its  general  eastern  limit.  To  the 
southward  it  seems  never  to  have  been  met  with  much  south  of 
the  Tennessee  river.  It  is  well  known  to  have  ranged  over 
northern  and  western  Arkansas,  and  thence  southward  over  the 
greater  part  of  Texas,  and  across  the  Rio  Grande  into  Mexico. 
Westward  it  extended  over  northern  New  Mexico  and  thence 
westward  and  northward  throughout  the  Great  Salt  Lake  basin, 
and  probably  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in  California  and 
the  Blue  mountains  in  Oregon. 

North  of  the  Uuited  States  its  western  boundary  seems  to 
have  been  formed  by  the  main  chain  of  the  Rocky  mountains* 
along  the  foot-hills  of  which  it  has  been  found  as  far  north  as 
the  Mackenzie  river.  Its  most  northern  limit  seems  to  have 
been  the  northern  shore  of  Great  Slave  lake.  In  the  British 
possessions  its  range  to  the  eastward  did  not  extend  beyond  the 
plains  west  of  the  Hudson's  bay  highlands.  It  was  hence 
wholly  absent  from  the  region  north  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


FAMILY  CERVIDJE. 
Alces   americanus  JARDINE. 

MOOSE  DEER. 

PLATE  V, 

This,  the  largest  existing  ruminant  in  North  America  is  ex- 
ceedingly uncouth  and  ungainly,  and  more  ox -like  in  many 
respects  than  any  other  member  of  the  Cervidce.  The  body  is 
massive  and  compact  and  relatively  short,  being  concentrated 
anteriorly.  The  legs  are  very  long  and  stout,  especially  the 
forelegs.  The  hoofs  are  large  and  ox-like,  and  the  '  'dew-claws" 
large  and  pendulous.  The  metatarsal  gland  is  absent.  Tarsal 
gland  small  and  covered  with  retrorse  hairs.  The  head  is 
massive  but  narrow,  and  reminding  somewhat  of  that  of  a  horse, 
the  nose,  however,  is  enormous  and  hairy,  except  a  space  be- 
tween the  nostrils.  The  ears  are  very  large.  The  antlers,  which 
complete  the  bizarre  physiognomy  of  the  male,  are  relatively  but 
moderately  large  and  spreading,  forming,  by  the  expansion  of 
the  beam  and  coalescence  of  the  lines,  a  broadly-palmate  shovel- 


TJHIVEHSITY 

V 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  271 

like  organ,  adapted  to  be  used  in  the  excavation  of  food  buried 
beneath  the  snows  of  the  frozen  regions  chiefly  inhabited  by  the 
animal.  Though,  as  before  said,  relatively  short,  being  rarely 
over  twenty-five  to  thirty  inches  long,  the  antlers  of  the  moose 
are  remarkably  massive  and  strong,  and  may  weigh  from  fifty 
to  sixty  pounds.  That  such  appendages  form  very  effective 
weapons  is  obvious  at  a  glance.  Three  months  is  required  to 
complete  the  growth  of  the  antlers  in  the  adult  male,  which  re- 
moves the  velvet  in  September.  For  nearly  two  months  during 
the  rutting  season,  the  antlers  continue  to  receive  nourishment, 
and  the  antlers  may  be  worn  to  January,  February,  or  even 
March  following.  The  young  carry  the  antlers  longer ;  for 
instance,  the  young  bull  moose  gains  its  first  antler,  consisting 
of  a  small  cylindrical  dag,  in  its  second  summer,  and  carries  it 
until  April  or  May  following.  The  antlers  of  the  next  year  are 
bifurcate.  These  appendages  continue  to  increase  in  size  at 
least  to  the  age  of  seven  years.  One  to  three  short  tines  are 
added,  but  not  with  sufficient  regularity  to  serve  as  a  trust- 
worthy criterion  for  estimating  the  age.  It  is  said  that 
although  the  antlers  are  used  as  well  as  the  feet  in  the  cyclo- 
pean  conflicts  of  the  males,  only  the  latter  are  employed 
against  dogs,  wolves,  etc.,  as  .though,  possibly,  the  noble 
weapons  nature  furnishes  were  designed  only  for  use  in  strife 
with  their  peers. 

The  hair  which  is  coarse,  stiff  and  brittle,  is  very  abundant 
upon  the  neck  and  shoulders,  often  forming  a  shaggy  mane. 
In  summer  the  coat  is  more  glossy  and  resembles  that  of  the 
horse.  The  color  is  brown  or  blackish-brown  and  admits  of  a 
rather  wide  range  of  variation.  Below,  the  color  is  lighter,  as 
also  the  middle  of  the  nose  and  insides  of  the  ears. 

The  females  lack  the  horns  and  are  considerably  smaller  and 
lighter  colored,  at  least  in  the  winter  pelage.  A  full-grown 
male  may  weigh  1,500  pounds.  One  or  two  young  (very  rarely 
three)  are  produced  and  are  very  carefully  secreted  and  vigi- 
lantly guarded.  Upon  occasion  the  mother,  in  protecting  her 
offspring,  may  display  great  ferocity,  which  is  rendered  the 
more  formidable  because  of  the  gigantic  size  and  threatening 
aspect  of  the  beast.  The  family  relations  of  the  moose  indi- 
cate greater  fidelity  than  in  any  other  American  deer.  Al- 
though this  constancy  is  limited  to  a  single  season,  they  are 
more  nearly  monogamic  than  most  of  our  large  quadrupeds. 

Of  external  sexual  distinctions  it  remains  to  mention  the 
"bell"  or  dew-lap  of  the  moose,  which  is  so  nearly  confined  to 


272  BULLETIN   NO.  VII. 

the  male  as  to  make  it  safe,  perhaps,  to  refer  those  instances 
of  its  presence  in  the  female  to  similar  causes,  as  the  inheri- 
tance of  other  sexual  characters  by  members  of  the  opposite 
sex.  This  pendulous  flap  of  the  skin  of  the  throat  seems  to 
serve  simply  a  purpose,  which,  from  the  paucity  of  our  vocab- 
ulary, we  must  term  ornament,  though  by  no  means  implying 
by  this  that  it  is  designed  merely  to  gratify  the  taste  of  wearer 
or  viewer. 

The  nearest  existing  relative  of  the  moose  is  the  elk  of 
Northern  Europe.  Unfortunately,  by  one  of  those  frequent 
transpositions  in  popular  nomenclature,  the  name  elk  has  in 
this  country  been  applied  to  the  only  other  large  deer-like  ani- 
mal, though  the  latter  is  hardly  specifically  distinct  from  the 
European  stag.  Although  subject  to  a  wide  range  of  variation 
the  species  under  consideration  present  in  a  comprehensive 
view  appreciable  distinctions.  While,  therefore,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  of  their  common  origin  and  close  relationship,  the 
decision  of  the  question  of  specific  identity  must  depend  very 
largely  upon  theoretical  considerations  or  individual  judgment. 
The  American  moose  is  larger  and  of  a  darker  color  than  the 
European  species,  and  certain  differences  in  the  form  and  ex- 
pansion of  the  antlers  are  obvious,  while  the  more  recondite 
(and  theoretically  more  valuable)  distinctions  seem  never  to 
have  been  carefully  studied.  The  configuration  of  the  cra- 
nium varies  too  much  in  all  large  mammal's  and  especially  in 
those  in  which  one  sex  bears  horns,  and  hence  more  or  less  of 
cross  inheritance  of  sexual  characters  is  to  be  expected,  to 
afford  instructive  distinctions  unless  very  careful  elimination 
of  all  variants  is  made  upon  the  basis  of  very  large  and  repre- 
sentative collections. 

The  original  habitat  of  the  moose  extended  entirely  across 
the  continent  between  the  fortieth  and  seventieth  parallels, 
approximately  in  appropriate  localities.  The  treeless  regions 
were,  of  course,  always  avoided  by  an  animal  whose  chief  sus- 
tenance is  afforded  by  leaves  and  bark.  A  few  specimens  of 
this  noble  animal  still  may  remain  in  the  inaccessible  regions 
of  Northern  Minnesota,  but  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  it 
will  have  deserted  the  territory  of  the  United  States  forever . 
The  moose  is  at  home  in  dense  thickets,  such  as  are  usually 
found  about  the  swamps  and  shallow  lakes  at  the  head  waters 
of  northern  streams.  The  long  legs  and  deeply  cleft  hoofs 
adapt  the  animal  to  such  a  habitat,  while  the  short  neck  and 
prehensile  snout  sufficiently  indicate  the  impossibility  of  its 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  273 

grazing  like  other  deer.  The  moose  is  said  to  feed  upon  conifer- 
ous as  well  as  deciduous  trees,  which  is  rather  exceptional. 
In  winter  higher  ground  is  sought,  but  still  in  localities  afford- 
ing abundant  * '  browse. "  When  the  snow  becomes  deep  they 
are  said  to  congregate  in  close  herds  and  select  a  limited  range 
which  becomes  more  circumscribed  as  the  snow  deepens  and 
becomes  encrusted.  This  is  called  a  "yarding"  and  a  moose 
yard  may  occupy  nearly  one  hundred  acres.  Such  yards,  when 
discovered  by  the  hunter,  of  course,  are  a  capital  prize.  The 
females  do  not  yard  with  the  old  males,  the  former  often  occu- 
pying separate  yards  with  their  calves.  The  younger  males 
are  quite  gregarious,  but  as  age  increases  a  desire  for  solitude 
seems  to  augment  till  ultimately  the  patriarch  becomes  a  her- 
mit, nursing  his  morose  reflections  in  some  isolated  spot  far 
from  the  haunts  of  his  kind. 

The  pursuit  of  the  moose  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  keen- 
ness of  his  senses  and  extreme  wariness.  To  stalk  the  animal 
even  with  firearms  taxes  the  patience  and  skill  of  the  Indian. 
When,  however,  the  snow  becomes  covered  with  so  firm  a  crust 
as  to  support  the  hunter  and  impede  effectually  the  progress 
of  the  heavy  animal,  the  chase  of  the  moose  becomes  compara- 
tively easy  to  one  familiar  with  its  habits  and  haunts.  When 
hunted  at  such  times  the  herds  pass  in  single  file,  each  step- 
ping so  accurately  in  the  foot- prints  of  its  predecessor  as  to 
lead  any  but  an  experienced  person  to  suppose  that  but  a  single 
animal  formed  the  trail.  When  moving  rapidly,  the  leader 
becomes  weary  of  breaking  the  way  and  steps  to  one  side  fall- 
ing in  behind  the  others,  and  in  this  way  they  change  in  rota- 
tion, although  a  very  chivalrous  care  is  exercised  in  aiding  the 
weaker  members  of  the  herd. 

During  their  confinement  in  yards  at  the  hight  of  winter  the 
accessible  shrubs  are  very  closely  cropped,  but  ordinarily  the 
tree  is  not  killed  since  only  one  side  is  stripped.  The  bark  is 
removed  to  a  hight  of  ten  feet  as  the  animal  rears  upon  its 
hind  feet  and  peels  the  bark.  The  direction  a  herd  is  moving 
may  be  ascertained  by  one  familiar  with  their  habits  since  the 
bushes  browsed  are  pulled  toward  the  animal.  The  fir  trees 
are  browsed  but  the  bark  is  not  eaten,  yet  hunters  state  that 
young  firs  suffer  more  than  other  species  from  the  habit  of  the 
males  of  rubbing  their  heads  upon  them  in  such  a  way  as  to 
apply  the  balsam  to  the  abraded  skin  about  the  horns.  It  would 
be  a  curious  and  instructive  fact,  if  substantiated,  if  instinct 
teaches  the  animal  the  curative  properties  of  the  balsam  of  fir 


274  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

and  the  proper  method  of  applying  the  salve  to  the  tender 
skin  of  the  scalp.  The  same  instinct  is  shown  in  the  habit  of 
diving  in  fly -time  to  escape  the  assaults  of  these  pests — if  this 
habit  is  not  the  result  of  the  fondness  of  the  moose  for  the 
roots  of  the  yellow  water  lily — Nuphar. 

The  bark  of  the  flowering  maple  and  mountain  ash  and  the 
twigs  of  the  fir  and  "moosewood"  are  said  to  form  the  staple 
winter  diet  of  the  moose  in  some  places  at  least.  In  summer 
the  white  hunter  is  most  successful  in  hunting  the  moose  by 
availing  himself  of  the  curiosity  and  antipatly  to  fire  which  are 
prominent  traits  of  the  animal.  Torch  hunting  has  been  al- 
ready frequently  referred  to  and  the  process  is  essentially 
similar  in  all  cases.  A  canoe  manned  by  two  persons  is  quietly 
paddled  along  the  stream  or  among  the  water  plants  of  the 
lake  frequented  by  moose,  and  the  glare  of  the  torch  is  said  to 
excite  the  male  to  a  blind  rage,  making  it  an  easy  victim.  At 
the  proper  season  the  accurate  imitation  of  the  bellow  of  the 
male  is  said  to  be  an  effectual  means  of  getting  within  range. 
Aside  from  the  loud  bellow  referred  to  the  sound  known  by  the 
hunters  as  "chopping"  i.  e.,  the  gnashing  of  the  teeth  is  per- 
haps the  only  sound  intentionally  produced.  The  only  speci- 
men of  this  animal  encountered  from  Minnesota  is  that  now  on 
exhibition  in  the  museum  of  the  University,  but  as  it  was  not 
seen  in  the  flesh  no  anatomical  or  other  details  could  be  secured. 

Rangifer  tarandus. 

WOODLAND  CARIBOU,   OR   AMERICAN  REINDEER. 

Fig.  20. 

The  reindeer  are  represented  in  America  by  two  species,  and 
only  one  of  these  merely  enters  the  northern  outskirts  of  the 
United  States.  The  relationship  between  our  species  and  the 
European  is  so  close  that  many  writers  have  hesitated  to  con- 
sider them  as  distinct.  The  caribou  is  much  smaller  than  its 
relative,  the  moose,  and  is  even  more  ungainly  and  kine-like. 
The  full-grown  animal  is  as  large  as  a  well-grown  yearling 
beef,  and  has  much  the  same  stocky  form.  The  legs  are 
shorter  and  the  neck  rather  longer  than  in  the  moose,  while  the 
hoofs  are  broader  than  in  any  American  ruminant.  Like  the 
moose  the  neck  of  the  male  is  clothed  with  a  shaggy  mane- 
The  muzzle  is  like  that  of  the  ox  rather  than  of  the  moose. 

The  color  is  variable  and  fluctuates  with  the  seasons  ;  in  gen- 
eral, however,  it  is  lighter  than  that  of  other  deer.  In  summer 
it  is  darkest,  the  prevailing  color  being  dark  brown  varying 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 


275 


Fig.  20.    Head  of  an  unusually  large  Caribou. 

toward  yellowish  or  reddish.  The  neck  and  under  parts,  inclu- 
ding also  rump  and  tail  and  inside  of  legs,  are  white.  The  brown 
is  deepest  and  most  constant  on  the  head  and  legs,  though  the 
feet  are  fringed  with  white.  The  neck  is  always  light-colored, 


276  BULLETIN   NO.  VII. 

and  in  the  male  is  furnished  with  a  heavy  mane.  The  fur  is  of 
two  sorts,  the  inner  being  dense  and  soft  while  the  longer  hairs 
are  crinkled  and  pliant.  The  hide  makes  a  useful  leather. 
The  color  is  lighter  on  the  back  than  on  the  sides.  The  antlers 
are  worn  by  both  males  and  females,  though  those  of  the 
female  are  smaller  and  less  palmated.  The  antlers  are  more 
spreading  than  those  of  the  moose,  which  they  most  resemble. 
Their  form  is  very  irregular,  but  the  slender  branches  are  more 
or  less  palmated  at  the  end.  The  feet  are  very  large  and  the 
hoofs  are  flattened,  and  in  form  similar  to  those  of  the  ox  ;  the 
dew  claws  or  accessory  hoofs  are  unusually  large  and  are  not 
entirely  unf unctional .  There  is  said  to  be  some  muscular  con- 
trol of  these  remnants  of  the  second  and  fifth  digits,  which, 
with  their  flattened  hoofs  spread  laterally,  add  considerably  to 
the  support  of  the  animal  as  its  makes  its  way  across  the  bogs, 
which  are  its  special  habitat.  The  entire  lower  leg  is  applied 
to  the  ground  in  such  cases,  so  that  the  caribou's  foot  forms  a 
sort  of  snow  shoe.  The  hoofs  are  black.  Tarsal  gland  large, 
metatarsal  gland  wanting,  interdigital  gland  found  only  in 
hind  feet. 

The  antlers  of  the  male  are  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  the 
shaft  being  subcylindrical,  with  comparatively  restricted 
palms.  The  brow  tines  are  asymmetrical,  one  or  both  descend- 
ing to  about  the  level  of  the  eyes  and  one  usually  expanded  in 
a  vertical  plane  and  digitate.  The  bez-tine  may  also  descend. 
At  the  end  of  the  main  shaft  the  palmate  part  bears  a  number 
of  posterior  tines.  There  is  considerable  variation,  which 
would  be  useless  to  describe.  The  antlers  of  the  female  are 
small  and  little  palmate,  but  bear  simply  flattened  snags.  The 
Barren-ground  caribou  which  inhabits  the  rocky  morasses  of 
arctic  America  and  is  most  nearly  akin  to  this  species  has  similar 
antlers,  though  rather  more  palmate  and  proportionally  much 
larger.  Indeed,  the  antlers  of  the  woodland  caribou  are  not 
half  the  size  of  its  cousin's,  though  the  latter  is  about  half  its 
size. 

The  antlers  of  the  European  reindeer  with  which  our  spe- 
cies is  sometimes  identified,  differ  chiefly  in  that  those  of  the 
European  form  are  less  palmated.  To  these  differences  in  the 
antlers  we  must  add  the  greater  size  of  the  American  species, 
as  well  as  its  lighter  color.  The  caribou  lives  chiefly  upon 
lichens  and  mosses  and  the  browse  of  small  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  reindeer  moss,  Cladonia  rangiferina,  species  of  Usnea, 
Sticta  and  Cornicularia  are  said  to  constitute  the  principal  sup- 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


277 


Fig.  21.    European  Reindeer, 

ply,  especially  in  the  far  north.  In  summer  they  delight  to 
feed  upon  the  rich  grass  of  river  bottoms,  taking  good  care, 
however,  to  keep  clear  of  the  thickets  which  might  shelter 
their  enemies.  The  writer  has  encountered  the  caribou  in 
Minnesota  only  about  the  head  waters  of  the  White-face  river 
and  along  the  St.  Louis  river  near  Knife  Falls.  There  it  was 
in  1884  not  rare,  though  so  shy  as  to  be  secured  with  difficulty. 
Along  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior  it  is  less  shy  and  the 
animals  may  be  seen  feeding  quietly  in  groups  along  the  up- 
land meadows.  It  also  occurs  in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick 
and  Maine.  Thence  it  ranges  west  to  the  Pacific,  but  does  not 
extend  south  of  Lake  Superior.  Along  the  Pacific  the  range 
extends  nearly  to  the  Arctic,  but  the  Barren-ground  species 
takes  the  ]31ace  in  central  British  America  as  far  south  as  60° 
or  farther.  The  range  is  more  restricted  eastward  perhaps 
because  of  the  greater  rigor  of  the  climate. 


278  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

Although  eaten  by  the  Indians,  the  flesh  is  inferior  and  no 
attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to  domesticate  our  species. 
The  hide,  therefore,  is  the  most  valued  article  furnished  by 
the  caribou,  and  in  a  short  time,  like  so  many  other  large  ani- 
mals, the  caribou  will  cease  to  be  a  member  of  our  fauna. 

Cervus  canadensis  ERXL. 

AMERICAN  ELK. 

Plate  VI. 

The  only  true  Cervus  of  Minnesota,  and  the  largest  animal  in 
America,  except  the  moose,  still  exists,  though  in  diminished 
numbers,  in  the  northern  wilderness.  The  elk  may  be  taken 
as  the  type  of  a  true  deer,  and  the  poetic  associations  and  fan- 
cies which  cling  to  the  stag  of  Europe  might  better  have  been 
engrafted  upon  this  species  than  the  Virginia  deer,  as  has  hap- 
pened. The  elk  is,  however,  so  much  larger  than  the  stag, 
though  by  some  regarded  as  not  specifically  distinct,  and  so 
much  more  rare  than  the  deer  that  it  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  peculiar  outgrowths  of  our  own  country,  while 
few  ever  think  of  the  Virginia  deer  as  radically  different  from 
the  European  red  deer. 

The  short  body,  slender  and  rather  long  legs,  small  feet, 
slender  head  and  graceful  neck,  make  up  the  ensemble  so  fami- 
liar, at  least  through  illustrations,  but  no  illustration  can  do 
justice  to  the  majesty  of  the  stag  at  bay  with  flashing  eye  and 
threatening  antlers.  The  elk  may  be  regarded  as  par  excellence 
the  game  mammal  of  America.  The  antlers  are  large  and  much 
more  uniform  in  size  and  form  than  either  of  the  preceding. 
The  antler  consists  of  the  beam  or  main  trunk,  in  this  case 
cylindrical  and  polished,  chief  branches  called  tines,  minor 
branches  called  snags,  and  tubercles.  The  position  and  relative 
size  of  the  tines  are  of  especial  importance  in  distinguishing 
species.  The  lowest  considerable  tine  is  the  brow-tine,  extend- 
ing forward,  the  next  the  bez-tine,  then  the  royal,  sur-royal 
tine,  etc.  In  the  elk  the  brow- tine  springs  from  immediately 
above  the  burr  and  forms  a  gentle  downward  curve.  The  bez- 
tine  extends  laterally  and  is  nearly  of  the  same  size.  A  con- 
siderable interval  separates  the  royal  tine,  which  is  smaller 
than  the  preceding.  The  beam  now  is  reduced  in  size  and 
gives  off  more  or  fewer  anterior  tines  which  vary  with  age  and 
otherwise.  Occasionally  these  upper  tines  spring  from  the 
same  point  forming  a  depression  surrounded  by  diverging 


I 


ws. 


I        :K 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA.  279 

points.  Such  cases  are  called  crown-antlers.  The  first  set  of 
antlers  are  slender  spikes  called  dag- an  tiers,  and  it  is  rare  to 
find  any  trace  of  bifurcation.  The  second  set  have  brow  and 
bez-tines,  and  possibly  other  snags.  The  third  year  adds  the 
royal  tines,  and  succeeding  pairs  vary  Considerable,  but  con- 
tinue to  enlarge  many  years.  These  wonderful  organs,  pro- 
duced in  so  incredibly  short  a  time  each  summer  and  dropped 
in  autumn  or  winter,  have  always  attracted  much  attention. 
Though  so  horn-like  these  appendages  were  early  seen  to  differ 
from  ordinary  horn  which  is  an  epidermal  excrescence.  They 
are  really  peculiar  bones  left  exposed  to  view  by  the  denuda- 
tion of  their  original  skin-like  covering.  So  much  has  been 
written  about  the  antlers  and  their  development  that  we  need 
not  go  into  details.  A  very  complete  general  account  may  be 
found  in  Caton's  Deer  of  America, 

The  antlers  contain  more  animal  matter  than  ordinary  bone, 
but  in  most  respects  the  structure  is  similar.  Much  obscurity  still 
exists  as  to  the  exact  physiological  explanation  of  the  excite- 
ment which  causes  this  growth  by  concentrating  the  blood  at 
these  points.     During  the  period  of  growth  the  sensitive  cover- 
ing or  velvet  is  especially  vascular  and  sensitive,  but  blood  is 
also  supplied  by  the  periosteum  below  and  haversian  canals. 
The  velvet  dies  and  is  peeled  voluntarily,  but  authors  disagree 
as  to  whether  the  cessation  of  the  flow  of  blood  is  due  to  the 
mechanical  closing  of  the  vessels  passing  to  the  velvet  by  the 
growth  of  the  burr  at  the  base,  or  by  a  more  subtle  process. 
After  the  velvet  is  removed,  a  process  more  or  less  painful  and 
attended  with  loss  of  blood,  the  antlers  become  hard,  and  the 
deer  sets  about  polishing  the  tips  by  abrasion  against  tree 
trunks  and  among  the  boughs.      The  growth  of  the  antler  is 
dependent  on  the  generative  organs,  at  least  largely,  and  cas- 
tration causes  a  curious  abortion  or  malformation,  also  prevent- 
ing the  shedding  at  the  proper  time.     It  is  stated  that  the  elk 
assist  each  other  in  the  removal  of  the  antlers,  and  that  heaps 
of  these  appendages  may  be  found  in  places  where  the  males 
have  congregated  for  this  purpose.     Of  the  truth  of  this  we  can 
not  vouch.     The  comparative  rarity  of  such  relics  is  accounted 
for  by  some  one  on  the  ground  that  mice  at  once  devour  them. 
The  eyes  of  the  elk  are  prominent  and  expressive,  the  ears 
large  and  very  movable,  neck  short  and  flexible,  tail  very  short. 
The  summer  pelage  dirty  yellowish-gray  upon  the  body,  with 
chestnut  brown  head,   legs  and  under  parts.     In  winter  the 
colors  are  much  darker  and  sexual  differences  appear,    the 


280  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

males  being  darker.  The  male  has  the  lower  parts  of  the  body 
and  neck  as  well  as  legs  very  dark  brown,  nearly  black,  while 
in  the  female  these  corresponding  parts  are  chestnut  brown. 
Above,  the  color  is  yellowish-brown.  The  rump  is  marked  by 
a  patch  of  white,  bordered  above  by  black.  The  young  elk  is 
spotted  or  dappled  with  dull  white,  but  far  less  regularly  than 
the  fawn  of  the  Virginia  deer. 

Like  the  red  deer  of  Europe  the  elk  is  gregarious  and  polyg- 
amous, though  the  number  associated  is  rarely  great.  The 
herd  consists  of  several  divisions  during  the  breeding  season. 
The  oldest  or  most  vigorous  buck  drives  the  younger  bucks 
from  the  herd  of  does  while  the  young  malcontents  become 
companions  in  discontent.  Sometimes  some  of  the  females 
desert  the  harem  and  join  the  buckaneers.  No  one  in  America 
has  had  so  fine  opportunities  for  the  study  of  the  elk  as  Judge 
Caton,  and  from  his  "Antelope  and  Deer  of  North  America" 
one  may  glean  ample  illustrations  of  its  habits. 

In  appetite,  the  elk  is  not  epicurean  but  eats  greedily  almost 
all  vegetable  food.  Grass  and  succulent  herbage  as  well  as 
the  shoots  of  many  trees  form  the  staple  diet.  In  a  state  of 
nature  the  elk  breeds  at  two  or  three  years,  producing  one, 
two  or  three  at  a  birth.  The  fawns  are  very  active  but  the 
mother  does  not  at  once  join  the  herd. 

The  domestication  of  the  elk  is  so  easy  that  it  is  a  pity  it  has 
not  been  more  generally  attempted.  The  writer  has  seen 
domesticated  specimens  at  work  like  oxen  and  experiment  in 
this  line  would  be  at  least  interesting.  The  geographical  dis- 
tribution was  once  enormons — extending  far  north  and  south 
of  the  limits  of  the  United  States.  The  prairies  were  rather 
avoided  but  all  other  portions  of  our  national  domain  were 
suited  to  this  noble  deer.  It  is  now  practically  extinct  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  the  writings  of  early  ex- 
plorers of  Minnesota  references  to  great  herds  of  elk  abound. 
To-day  the  Indians  in  the  region  north  of  Lake  Superior  now 
and  then  succeed  in  securing  one,  but  the  American  hunter  is 
fortunate  if  he  sees  a  wild  elk  east  of  the  Yellowstone.  Mr. 
W.  W.  Cooke  of  Moorehead  informed  me  that  both  moose  and 
elk  are  always  found  near  lakes  Itaska  and  Caribou  while  in  1885 
they  were  common  about  Red  lake.  The  cause  of  the  wide 
range  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  appetite  is  not  delicat  e 
and  no  single  plant  is  the  chief  reliance  of  the  animal.  The 
chase  of  the  elk  can  not  be  regarded  as  very  noble  sport  aside 
from  the  size  of  the  game,  as  sheer  patience  and  endurance  are 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  281 

the  chief  factors.  Still  hunting  is  the  only  method  available  to 
the  white  hunter.  The  Indian  formerly  succeeded  in  slaying 
in  a  more  wholesale  manner. 


Cervus  (Cariacus)  virginianus  BODD. 

COMMON  OR  VIRGINIA  DEER. 

The  most  graceful  and  attractive  in  color  of  our  Gervidce 
reach  only  a  medium  size.  The  extreme  weight  may  be  250 
pounds  but  the  average  is  much  less. 

The  beautiful  reddish-gray  which  constitutes  the  prevailing 
color  varies  to  bright  bay  or  yellowish.  The  winter  coat  is 
lighter  and  more  bluish  than  that  of  summer.  The  lower  side 
of  the  head  to  the  throat,  the  belly  and  inside  of  thighs,  and 
the  inside  of  the  hind  legs  are  white.  A  dark  line  marks  the 
median  lower  line  of  neck  and  brisket.  The  separate  hairs  are 
banded  with  gray,  brown,  yellowish-gray  and  black  succes- 
sively, beginning  at  the  base.  The  head  is  acute,  the  nose  be- 
ing naked,  eyes  very  large,  ears  relatively  small.  The  antlers 
are  spreading  and  strongly  curved  from  base  to  tip  with  back- 
wardly  projecting  tines,  from  one  to  six  in  number.  The  num- 
ber of  these  tines  is  only  an  approximate  index  of  the  age,  and 
may  vary  in  the  opposite  members  of  the  same  pair.  They 
reach  a  considerable  size,  weighing  as  much  as  six  pounds. 
The  neck  is  much  more  slender  in  proportion  than  in  the  elk, 
and  the  body  is  longer.  The  tail  is  longer  than  any  of  our 
deer,  and  tapers  uniformly.  It  measures  from  fifteen  to  six- 
teen inches  and  is  flattened  rather  than  terete.  The  body  above 
described  is  furnished  with  long  and  marvelously  active  legs, 
tipped  with  acute  polished  hoofs,  and  capable  ofj  feats  not  to  be 
believed  till  seen. 

This  deer  is  more  timid  and  sensitive  than  the  larger  species, 
but  when  taken  young  submits  to  domestication  readily.  Al- 
though moderately  gregarious  this  species  is  not  so  polygamous 
as  the  elk,  and  no  single  buck  rules  the  harem.  Fierce  fights 
often  occur,  however,  and  continual  quarreling  occurs  during 
the  rut.  The  fawns  are  weaned  at  four  or  five  months  but  fol- 
low the  mother,  the  males  for  one,  the  females  for  two  years. 
The  mother  tends  and  guards  her  young  most  solicitously. 
During  summer  the  feeding  is  done  chiefly  at  night,  and  grassy, 

-18 


282  BULLETIN   NO     VII. 

slow-flowing  streams  and  lily -flecked  lakes  are  favorite  resorts. 
No  animal  furnishes  more  real  sport  than  the  deer.  The  weary 
days  spent  in  tramping  through  fairly  impassable  swamps  are 
forgotten  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment  when  the  lordly  ani- 
mal dashes  by  with  gleaming  eyes,  and  gives  you  a  few  seconds 
opportunity  for  his  capture.  The  prevailing  method  for  stalk 
ing  the  deer  in  the  open  woodlands  of  Minnesota  is  for  several 
to  unite,  some  stationing  themselves  in  the  known  runways  while 
others  beat  the  denser  copses,  in  hope  of  starting  the  animal. 
The  fortunate  hunter,  into  whose  beat  the  deer  strikes,  has  no 
intimation  of  its  approach  except  the  crash  which  precedes  his 
appearance.  If  nerves  do  not  fail,  the  rifle  is  prepared,  and  a 
ball  is  sent  crashing  into  the  shoulder  as  the  animal  springs 
into  the  air,  to  fall  in  a  heap  almost  at  the  feet  of  his  slayer. 
Coursing  deer  on  horseback  has  never  been  tried  as  our  state 
furnishes  no  opportunity.  Jack  hunting,  if  less  sportsman-like, 
is  fully  as  exciting  and  less  fatiguing  than  any  other  method. 
An  experience  of  this  sort  on  the  St.  Louis  river  convinced  the 
writer  that  nerves,  usually  rather  steady,  can  be  stirred  by  the 
sudden  apparition  of  luminous  orbs,  backed  by,  no  one  knew 
what.  As  much  depends  on  the  one  who  uses  the  paddle  as 
the  actual  Nimrod. 

A  few  initiated  have  succeeded  in  securing  a  deer  or  two  near 
the  city  of  Minneapolis  every  winter  up  to  very  recently,  but 
now  this  sport  must  be  sought  far  northward. 
•  \ 

Antilocapra  americana  ORD. 

AMERICAN  ANTELOPE;  PRONG-HORN  ANTELOPE. 

Plate  I. 
Antilocapra  americana  ORDWAY,  Jour,  de  Phys.,  80. 1818. 

J.  E.  GRAY,  Knowsley  Menagerie,  1850. 

AUDUBON  and   BACHMAN,  N.  Amer.  Quadrupeds,  ii,  p. 
193,  1851. 

BAIRD,  Pacif.  R.  R.  Rep.,  viii,  p.  666,  1857. 

HARLAN,  Fauna  Am.,  p.  250,  1825. 

CATON,  Antelope  and  Deer  N.  A.,  1877. 

C.  YOGT,  Sauget.,  p.  310,  1883. 
AntilopeamericaneOnvwAY,  Guth.  Geog.,  1815. 

HARLAN,  Fauna  Am.,  p.  250,  1825. 

DOUGHTY,  Cab.  Nat.  Hist.,  p.  49,  1833. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Reise  in  Nord-Am.,  1839. 
Antilope  furcifer  SMITH,  Linn.  Trans.,  xiii,  p.  28,  1822. 

DESMAREST,  Mamm.,  ii,  p.  479,  1822. 

RICHARDSON,  Fanna  Bor.-Am.  ii,  1829. 

GIEBEL,  Zoologie,  Sauget.,  p.  305, 1855. 


MAMMALS  OF   MINNESOTA.  283 

Antilope  (Dicranoceros)  furcifer  SMITH,  Griff.  Guv. 

WAGNER,  Sup.  Schreb.  Sauget. ,  iv. 
Antilocapra  furcifer  DESMAREST,  Mamm.  ii,  479. 
Antilope  palmata  SMITH,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  xiii. 

SMITH,  Griff.  Guv.,  iv. 

WAGNER,  Schreb.  Sauget.,  v. 

OGILBY,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1836. 
Antilope  (Dicranoceros)  palmata  SMITH,  Griff.  Guv.,  1827. 
Antilope  anteflexa  GRAY,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond. 
Cervus  hamatus  BLAINVILLE,  Bull.  Soc.  Philomat.,  1816. 
Dicranoceros  furcifer  SUNDEVALL,  Konig.  Sv.  Vetonsh.  Handl.,  1844. 
Dicranoceros  americanus  TURNER,  Proc.  Zool  Soc.,  1850. 
Cervus  bifurcatus  RAFINESQUE,  (Eichardson.) 

The  prong-horn  antelope  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
ruminant  which  enters  our  limits,  not  only  because  it  is  the 
only  antelope  of  America,  but  because  it  possesses  several 
peculiarities  which  entirely  distinguish  it  from  any  other  rumi- 
nant whatever.  Although  known  from  accounts  of  western 
hunters  and  pioneers  for  some  time  previous,  the  first  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  animals  was  derived  from  the  specimen 
brought  back  by  the  Lewis  and  Clark  exploring  expedition. 
As  we  shall  see  beyond,  this  antelope  forms  the  connecting 
link  between  the  deer  and  the  antelopes,  and  may  be  taken  as 
a  type  long  isolated  and  representing  a  group  of  animals  of 
an  inclusive  type.  At  present  this  animal  does  not  set  foot 
within  our  borders,  but  at  no  very  distant  date,  frequently 
entered  the  southwestern  prairie  counties. 

In  size,  the  prong-horn  is  less  than  the  common  deer  and 
considerably  larger  than  a  sheep.  The  body  is  very  short  and 
its  build  may  rather  be  characterized  as  *  *  stumpy  "  than  elegant. 
The  legs  are  long  but  not  graceful,  while  the  feet  are  peculiar 
in  not  having  either  accessory  hoofs  or  hock  glands.  The 
neck  is  not  long  for  a  deer,  but  is  carried  in  an  erect,  and  what 
seems  a  rather  constrained  attitude.  The  head  is  large  and  is 
redeemed  from  ugliness  by  the  extraordinarily  large  eyes. 
The  eyes  are  said  to  be  larger  than  those  of  an  ox,  and,  there- 
fore, relatively  larger  than  those  of  any  ruminant.  The  color 
is  black,  but  the  expression  mild  and  winning.  The  eye  is 
protected  by  ample  lashes,  especially  upon  the  upper  lid. 
Tnere  is  no  larmier  without  or  internally.  The  ears  are  pointed 
and  hairy  inside  and  out,  being  about  five  inches  long  and  quite 
narrow.  The  muzzle  is  blunt  and  hairy  with  only  a  narrow 
naked  space  in  the  middle  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
width  and  expanding  to  include  the  nostrils.  The  nostrils  are 
large  and  less  oblique  than  in  the  deer.  The  horns  are  the 


284  BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 

most  interesting  feature,  not  of  the  head  only,  but  of  the  whole 
bodily  structure.  These  appendages  have  not  been  correctly 
understood  until  recently.  In  two  particulars  they  differ  from 
the  antelopes;  first,  no  true  antelope  has  tines  upon  the  horns; 
but  the  adult  prong-buck  has  a  sharp  spur  directed  forward, 
and  the  shaft  curves  gracefully  backward  and  inward,  taking 
on  a  distinctly  hamular  shape;  second,  no  true  antelope  sheds 
its  horns,  while  the  prong- buck  drops  its  horns  annually  up  to 
the  maturity  of  the  horn.  This  fact  was  first  discovered  by 
hunters  whose  practical  experience  gave  their  testimony  good 
claim  to  credence;  but  even  up  to  Audubon's  time  this  was 
discredited.  Audubon  indeed  thought  he  had  demonstrated 
the  contrary  by  showing  that  the  bony  core  of  the  horn  is  com- 
pletely ossified  with  the  skull.  His  mistake  grew  out  of  the 
assumption  that  if  the  horns  are  deciduous  they  must  be  consti- 
tuted after  the  plan  of  the  antlers  of  the  Cervidce.  The  first 
statement  of  the  true  deciduous  character  of  the  horns  was 
published  by  Bartlett,  who,  as  superintendent  of  the  gardens  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  communicated  his  discovery 
in  the  journal  of  that  society.  Eight  years  previous,  however, 
Dr.  C.  A.  Canfield  made  this  discovery  and  reported  the  same 
to  Prof.  Baird  whose  caution  prevented  Dr.  Canfield  from 
receiving  the  credit  of  priority  in  this  matter. 

The  horn  may  be  described  as  partially  hollow,  deciduous 
and  seated  upon  a  true  core  of  bone  about  one-half  the  length 
of  the  horn.  At  the  base  the  horn  is  corrugated,  but  there  are 
no  annulae  or  rings  of  growth,  indeed,  the  horn  is  rather  long- 
itudinally striate.  The  length  of  an  adult  horn  is  about  ten 
inches.  The  general  form  of  the  horn  is  most  like  that  of  the 
European  chamois.  In  the  female  the  horn  is  shorter,  ap- 
pears later,  is  always  simple  and  never  exceeds  three  inches 
in  length.  This  is  an  instructive  fact,  inasmuch  as  hollow- 
horned  ruminants  have  horns  in  both  sexes,  while  antlered 
ruminants  are  invariably  males.  Judge  Caton  has  studied 
the  process  of  shedding  the  horns  carefully  and  I  can  do  no 
less  than  copy  quite  fully  his  statements: 

1  'Although,  as  before  shown,  both  male  and  female  antelopes 
have  horns,  we  can  only  distinctly  detect  even  the  rudiments 
of  the  horns  on  the  male  at  the  time  of  its  birth.  It  may  then 
be  felt  as  a  slight  protuberance  on  the  skull.  This  rapidly  in- 
creases in  size,  and  when  about  four  months  old  the  horn 
breaks  through  the  skin,  and  a  horny  knob  appears.  At  this 
time  it  is  not  firmly  set  upon  the  core,  which  as  yet  is  but  rudi- 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  285 

mentary,  and  the  little  horn  may  be  moved  about  appreciably. 
After  this  the  core  grows  pretty  rapidly  and  soon  fixes  the 
horn  more  firmly  in  its  position.  On  an  early  kid,  in  my 
grounds,  this  little  horn  matured  and  was  cast  off  on  the  2d 
day  of  January,  when  I  found  it  quite  thrown  off  the  core  and 
suspended  by  a  slight  fibre  on  one  side,  so  I  saved  it.  The 
next  day  I  found  the  other  horn  in  the  same  condition,  which  I 
likewise  saved.  At  this  time  the  horn  was  fully  one  inch 
long." 

"The  new  horn  had  already  commenced  its  growth,  and 
the  tip  was  already  hardened  into  perfect  horn,  and  was  ex- 
tended appreciably  above  the  core,  which  at  that  time  was  less 
than  nine  lines  long.  The  new  horns  grew  very  rapidly 
through  the  winter,  so  that  in  six  weeks  the  cores  had  more 
than  doubled  in  length,  and  the  horns  were  extended  more 
than  an  inch  above  the  cores,  and  the  hardened  perfected 
horns  had  extended  down  to  near  the  top  of  the  cores." 

4 'But  this  process  is  better  observed  on  the  adult  males. 
This  law  seems  to  govern  the  times  of  shedding  of  the  antelope, 
—the  older  the  animal,  the  earlier  the  horn  matures,  and  the 
sooner  it  is  cast.  On  old  bucks  the  horn  is  shed  in  October, 
while  on  the  early  kids  it  is  shed  in  January,  and  still  later 
on  later  kids,  or  else  it  is  carried  over  till  the  next  year.  On 
a  late  kid  in  my  grounds  on  the  first  of  December,  the  horn 
was  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  above  the  skin.  It 
grew  slowly  all  winter,  and  till  the  time  of  its  death  in  May 
following." 

"Let  us  observe  the  horn  of  the-  adult  male  antelope,  which 
is  shed  in  October.  If  we  make  our  examination  so  soon  as 
the  horn  is  cast  off,  we  can  readily  understand  the  process  by 
which  it  is  removed.  By  looking  into  the  cavity  of  the  cast-off 
horn,  we  shall  see  that  it  extends  but  about  half  way  its  length, 
or  a  little  way  above  the  prong  ;  and  we  shall  also  see  that  it 
contains  a  large  number  of  coarse  lightish  colored  hairs,  all 
of  which  are  firmly  attached  to  the  horn,  and  many  of  them, 
towards  the  lower  part,  passing  quite  through  it.  We  see  the 
core  of  the  horn  is  covered  with  the  same  kind  of  hairs  as 
those  seen  in  the  cavity  of  the  horn.  We  now  appreciate  that 
these  hairs  grew  from  the  skin,  and  more  or  less  penetrated 
the  shell  or  horn,  and  when  this  was  removed  some  were  torn 
from  the  skin  and  others  from  the  horn." 

'  'We  observe,  further,  that  the  new  horn  had  commenced  its 
growth  a  considerable  time  before  the  old  one  was  cast,  for  the 


286  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

new  horn  was  extended  several  inches  above  the  top  of  the 
core,  nearly  in  a  vertical  direction,  although  with  a  slightly 
posterior  inclination.  The  top  of  this,  for  nearly  half  an  inch, 
is  already  hardened  into  perfect  horn.  Below  this  it  is  softer,  and 
a  little  way  down  it  has  lost  its  horny  texture,  but  is  a  pretty 
firm  and  somewhat  flexible  mass  down  to  the  core  and  around 
it,  at  the  upper  part  of  which,  however,  it  has  rather  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  thick  massive  skin,  of  a  high  temperature,  show- 
ing great  activity  in  the  blood-vessels  permeating  it.  As  we 
pass  lower  down,  the  skin  is  thinner,  and  shows  less  excite- 
ment or  activity.  Upon  this  skin  enveloping  the  core,  we  find 
the  hairs  already  described. " 

"This  was  the  condition  of  the  new  development  when  the 
old  horn  was  cast  off.  It  shows  that  the  new  horn  had  al 
ready  made  considerable  upward  growth  from  the  top  of  the 
core,  which  only  extended  up  into  the  old  horn  a  little  distance 
above  the  snag,  or  about  half  its  length  ;  all  above  this,  of  the 
old  horn,  was  solid;  and  was  not  intersected  by  the  hairs  as  it 
was  below." 

"Now  it  is  perfectly  manifest  that  as  the  horn  was  extended 
in  length  above  the  core,  it  must  have  carried  with  it  the  old 
horn  which  it  detached  from  the  core  and  tearing  out  the  hairs 
the  roots  of  which  were  in  the  skin,  and  many  of  which  ex- 
tended into  or  through  the  old  horn.  *  *  *  I  have  never 
observed  the  animal  to  assist  this  process  by  rubbing  its  horns 
against  convenient  objects,  but  my  opportunities  have  not  been 
such  as  to  authorize  the  statement  that  they  do  not  sometimes 
do  so." 

' '  When  the  old  horn  was  cast  off,  the  new  one,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  had  made  a  considerable  growth  above  the  core, 
which  was  already  tipped  with  perfect  horn."  *  *  * 

1  'By  the  latter  part  of  winter,  on  the  adult,  the  horn  has  at- 
tained about  this  stage  of  growth.  From  this  it  presses  on, 
hardening  in  its  downward  growth  till  the  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer, or  the  commencement  of  the  rut,  by  which  time  the  growth 
is  protected  down  to  the  base,  and  is  a  complete  weapon  for 
warfare,  and  it  so  continues  during  the  rut,  and  until  the  growth 
of  the  new  horn  is  commenced  and  loosens  the  old  one  from  its 
core,  and  raises  it  from  its  seat  as  has  been  described." — The 
Antelope  and  Deer  of  America.  J.  D.  Caton. 

It  is  uncecessary  to  add  that  the  horn  core  is  true  bone, 
clothed  with  its  periost,  and  this  part  of  the  horn  is  as  per- 
manent as  in  other  hollow-horned  ruminants.  The  cutaneous 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA  287 

layers,  the  transformation  of  which  produces  the  horney  por- 
tion, lies  directly  upon  the  periost  of  the  core.  The  hairs 
which  cover  the  skin,  enveloping  the  core  before  horn  is 
formed  persist,  and  thus,  according  to  Prof.  Curtis,  assist  in 
tying  down  the  horny  shell.  Upon  the  way  in  which  the  epi- 
dermis is  altered  to  form  horn,  I  may  again  be  permitted  to 
quote  from  Caton's  excellent  work:  "Now,  the  peculiarity 
about  this  is,  not  that  the  epidermis  is  the  source  of  the  horn,  or 
is  converted  into  horn,  but  that  a  very  limited  section  should 
be  stimulated  to  extraordinary  activity  till  its  work  is  accom- 
plished, and  then  subsides  into  a  comparatively  dormant  state; 
and  then  another  portion  wakens  to  the  same  vigorous  action, 
to  be  again  succeeded  by  another  active  section  still  lower 
down;  this  state  of  activity,  commencing  at  the  top  of  the  core 
and  gradually  passing  along  down  it,  followed  by  the  per- 
fected horn,  and  the  quiet  condition  of  the  epidermis  lining  its 
cavity;  and  that  this  extraordinary  phenomenon  should  occur 
annually." 

Having  thus  fully  discussed  the  horns,  it  remains  to  mention 
the  other  prominent  and  interesting  appendages,  the  hoofs. 
The  Prong-horn  is  one  of  the  few  ruminants  which  externally 
are  bi-digitate.  This  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  extreme 
development  in  an  old  type,  and  expresses  the  greatest  extreme 
of  reduction  in  the  artiodactyle  series,  as  the  horse  does  in  the 
perissodactyle.  The  hoofs  are  similarly  shaped  on  both  feet, 
and  are  very  acute  and  narrow.  The  external  margin  is  some- 
what concave. 

The  tail  is  short,  measuring  little  more  than  three  inches. 

The  hair  is  coarse,  somewhat  crinkled,  stiff  and  quite  brittle. 
It  shows  no  tendency  to  felt  or  mat,  but  bristles  coarsely  and  us- 
ually rather  raggedly  over  the  body.  There  is  little  or  no  under 
fur  in  summer,  but  according  to  Caton  this  is  present  in  consider- 
able quantities  in  the  colder  season.  The  neck  is  clothed  with 
a  stiff  bushy  mane,  of  which  the  hairs  may  be  four  inches  long. 
The  brittle  character  of  the  pelage  unfits  the  fur  for  robes,  but 
although  weak,  the  skin  is  said  to  rival  chamois  skin  for  like 
purposes. 

The  color  seems  to  be  very  uniform,  the  variations  being 
chiefly  such  as  are  incident  to  exposure  and  slight  seasonal 
modification.  The  colors  are  bright  and  striking,  and  so  well 
marked  that  they  are  easily  recognized,  as  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring the  subjoined  rude  sketch  by  an  Indian  with  our  plate. 
The  prevailing  color  is  rufous  yellow  to  tawny.  The  face  is 


288  BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 

brown.  The  lower  surface  is  white  broken  by  two  bands  of 
yellowish  upon  the  neck.  There  is  also  a  conspicuous  white 
spot  upon  the  rump. 

The  antelope  is  essentially  a  prairie  animal,  and  sedulously 
avoids  the  timber.  Its  companions  are  the  coyotes  and  the 
prairie  hare,  as  well  as  its  more  nearly  related  fellow,  the  buf- 
falo. Like  the  last,  it  is  gregarious,  and  like  the  first,  extremely 
fleet  of  foot ;  indeed,  it  is  said  to  surpass  all  other  native 
mammals  in  fleetness,  yet  is  comparatively  short  of  wind.  It 
seems  to  be  well  settled  from  observations  by  Dr.  Canfield,  that 
in  an  entirely  natural  state  the  antelope  is  eminently  grega- 
rious. He  says  :  * '  From  the  first  of  September  to  the  first  of 
March  antelopes  meet  in  bands,  the  bucks,  does  and  kids,  all 
together.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the  does  separate  themselves 
from  the  band,  one  by  one,  to  drop  their  kids;  they  produce 
two  at  a  birth.  After  a  little  time  the  does  collect  together 
with  their  young,  probably  for  mutual  protection  against  co- 
yotes, the  old  bucks  in  the  meantime  go  off  alone,  each  by  him- 
self, or  at  most  two  together,  leaving  the  young  bucks  and 
young  does  together  in  small  bands.  *  *  *  Any  particular 
band  of  antelopes  does  not  leave  the  locality  where  they  grow 
up,  and  never  range  more  than  a  few  miles  in  different  direc- 
tions." 

The  males  are  said  to  be  very  belligerent  during  the  rutting 
season  and  the  female  is  credited  with  much  courage  and  ad- 
dress in  protecting  her  young  from  the  coyote  and  other  foes. 
Males  are  said  to  be  exceedingly  salacious. 

The  antelope  is  said  to  possess  unusual  powers  of  expressing 
emotions,  as  will  be  gathered  from  the  following  passage  from 
the  much  quoted  volume  of  Judge  Caton: 

*  'I  had  placed  him  in  a  close  cage  in  the  evening,  intending 
to  familiarize  him  with  my  presence,  and  divest  him  of  his 
fears  when  he  saw  me  by  convincing  him  that  I  would  not  hurt 
him.  When  I  approached  him  the  next  morning  he  seemed 
struck  with  terror  and  made  frantic  efforts  to  break  out,  which 
he  soon  found  was  impossible.  His  great  black  eyes  glistened 
in  affright.  I  spoke  softly  and  kindly  while  he  stood  trembling 
as  I  introduced  my  hand  and  placed  it  on  his  shoulder.  Des- 
pair now  seemed  to  possess  him,  and  he  dropped  on  to  his 
knees,  bowed  his  head  and  burst  into  a  copious  flood  of  tears, 
which  coursed  down  his  cheeks  and  wet  the  floor." 

The  long  white  hair  of  the  rump  is  said  to  bristle  under  ex  - 
citement. 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA.  289 

The  American  antelope  is  accredited  with  unusual  intelli- 
gence and  is  quite  readily  tamed,  but  domestication  is  not  per- 
manently successful  for  even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances the  contrast  to  the  active  and  free  life  of  the  plains  is 
very  great  and  becomes  intolerable.  Health  is  impaired  and 
the  animal  soon  dies.  The  reproductive  powers  are  affected 
even  sooner  than  the  general  health  and  breeding  in  confine* 
ment  is  rarely  or  never  successful.  It  is  interesting  to  notice 
the  fact  stated  by  Caton  that  the  prong-buck  seems  to  consider 
the  antelope  of  Asia  as  more  congenial  than  native  deer  with 
which  it  probably  was  familiar  in  its  natural  state.  The  antelope 
is  a  dainty  feeder  but  avoids  the  browse  which  constitutes  so 
large  a  part  of  the  food  of  deer  and  woodland  ruminants.  They 
seem  to  live  almost  entirely  upon  the  buffalo  grass  of  their  na- 
tive plains,  but  readily  partake  of  the  ordinary  cereals  in  con- 
finement. 

The  antelope  is  assiduously  pursued  both  by  Indians  and 
white  hunters  for,  though  somewhat  dry,  the  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed  and  even  finds  its  way  in  considerable  quantities  into 
Minneapolis  markets.  The  chase  is  difficult  but  is  rendered  less 
so  by  the  curiosity  which  is  so  marked  a  peculiarity  of  the 
animal  as  to  be  a  real  weakness.  Another  point  which  is 
availed  of  by  the  hunter  is  the  entire  inability  of  the  antelope 
to  spring  over  high  vertical  obstacles,  and  this  in  spite  of 
really  marvelous  powers  in  horizontal  leaps.  It  would  seem 
that  long  confinement  to  the  plains  has  deprived  them  of  their 
natural  endowment  in  this  direction.  The  Indians  formerly 
availed  themselves  of  this  peculiarity  by  forming  large  low 
enclosures  of  brush-wood  into  which  the  antelope  were  driven, 
much  as  the  caribou  is  captured  in  the  north,  and  followed 
until  exhausted  and  slaughtered.  The  Indians  of  the  present 
day  sometimes  run  them  down  on  horseback,  for,  although  fleet 
of  foot,  the  antelope  is  said  to  lack  wind.  Staking  is  the  usual 
method  of  hunting  as  their  sight  is  but  moderately  discriminat- 
ing. The  habitat  is  limited  to  the  temperate  parts  of  North 
America  west  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Formerly  their  range 
included  all  of  the  territory  between  the  tropics  and  about  fifty- 
four  north  latitude  and  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  coast  ex- 
cept in  the  wooded  and  mountainous  portions.  At  the  present 
time  they  are  restricted  to  the  less  accessible  and  arid  regions 
between  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Mountains  and  southward. 
Southwestern  Minnesota  once  furnished  them  congenial  past- 
urage, but  they  have  long  since  retired  beyond  the  Missouri. 


290 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


Fig.  22.— Personal  totem  of  Running  An-  Fig.  23.— Cedar  burial  post  or  adjedatig 
telope,  drawn  by  himself .— Mullery's  sign  of  Wabojeeg,  showing  that  he  belonged  to 
language,  p.  410.  the  deer  clan.— Schoolcraft's  History  Am- 

erican Tribes,  p.  356. 


INDEX. 


AardVark 62 

Aeluroidea 60,  63 

Aeluropus 136 

Ailurus 135,139 

Ailuropus 136,  137,  139 

Ailurus  f ulgens 137 

Alactaga 217 

Alces  americanus 270 

A  merican  antelope 282 

American  elk 278 

American  ferret, 106 

American  hares,  comparison 

of  crania  of 232 

American  lion 67 

American  sable 104 

Amphibia %. .  14 

Amphisorex  talpoides ". .  44 

lesueri 48 

Anatomy  of  soft  parts  of  Le- 

poridas 233 

Anoplotherium 255 

Antelope,  American 282 

prong-horn 282 

Antilocapra   americana 282 

Antilocapra  furcifer 282 

Antilope  Americane 282 

anteflexa 283 

furcifer 282 

(Dicranoceros)  furcifer 283 

palmata 283 

(Dicranoceros}  palmata —  283 

Arctictis 136,  139 

Arctictis  binturong 137,  138 

Arctitis 62 

Arctocyonidae 60 

Arctoidea 60 

Arctomys 154,  168 

bobac 168 

flaviventer 168 

hoodi 165 

(Spermophilus)  hoodi 165 

marmota 168 

monax 168 

pruinosus 168 

tridecemlineatus 165 

Arctonyx 85 

Artemisia  f rigida 205 

Artiodactyla 254 


Artiodactyla,fossil  remains  of  255 

Arumtriphyllum 147 

Arvicola 197,  253 

alborufescens 199 

austerus 198 

(Pedomys)  austerus 206 

austerus  minor 206 

borealis 198 

borealis 199 

breweri 199 

curtatus 198 

dekayi 194 

edax 199 

emmonsi 178 

fulva 194 

gapperi 104 

glareolus 194 

hirsutus 199 

longicaudatus 198 

longirostris 199 

minor 

modesta 199 

montana 199 

nasuta 199 

occidentalis 199 

oneida 199 

oregonus 198 

pallidus 198 

(Chilotus)  pallidus 204 

palustris 

pennsylvanica 199 

pinetorum 198 

pratensis 194 

quasiater 198 

richardsoni 

riparia 194 

riparius 193,  195,  198,  199 

riparius  var.  borealis 203 

(Myonomes)  riparius 

riparius  longipilus 199 

rubidus 194 

rufescens 194,  199 

rufidorsum 199 

trowbridgei ; . .  199 

xanthognatha 199 

xanthognathus 198 

Arvicolidas 221 

Arvicolinae 192 

Ascomys  bursarius 224 

canadensis 224 

drummondii. 224 


292 


BULLETIN  NO.    VII. 


Astromycetes  cristatus 55 

Atalapha 

cinerea 32 

cinerea  cinereus .   32 

(Nycticejus)  crepuscularis . .  27 

(Lasiurus)  noveboracensis . .  29 

Atherura 245 

africana 245 

f  asiculata 245 

macroura 245 

Atophyrax 43 

Aves 14 


Badger 

African  honey 
Brazilian 
European 
honey 


86 

83 

83 
84 
Bassaris  ....................  136,  139 

Bassaris  astuta  ..............      137 

Bats  .........................        19 

brown  .................... 

dentition  of  .............        22 

form  of  the  skull  of  ......        23 

geographical  distribution 
of  ......................        25 

hoary  ....................        31 

littlebrown  ........  ......        36 

red  ......................        28 

silver-haired  ..............        34 

twilight  ..................        27 

Bear  .........................      135 

black  .....................      146 

sun  ................  :  .....       136 

Beaver  .......................      170 

Bidactyla  ....................      258 

Binturong  ...................        62 

Bison  .........................      258 

americanus  ..............      260 

antiquus  .................      260 

europeus  .................      259 

frontalis  ..................      258 

gaurus  ...................      258 

latifrons  .................  17,259 

priscus  ......   ............      260 

Black  bear  ...................      146 

Black  squirrel  .............      157 

Blarina  ......................  43,44 

angusticeps  ...............  45,  46 

berlandieri  ........  .......        45 

brevicaudata  ............  44,  45 

carolinensis  .............  45,  46 

cinerea  ...................        45 

exilipes  ...................        45 

talpoides  .................        44 

Bones  of  Lepus  campestris  .  .      235 
Bos  brachycera  .............. 

brachyceros  .............        257 

frontosus  ................  17,257 

(Poephagus)  grunniens  ...      258 
primigenius  .............  17,  257 

Bovidse  ..................      258 


Brachysorex  brevicaudata 44 

dekayi 45 

parviis 45 

Brown  bat 33 

Buffalo,  mountain 261 

wood 261 


Calomys 175,176 

Canada  porcupine 246 

Canidse 60,74 

Canis 74,77 

antarcticus 

aureus 76 

cancrivorus 76 

dingo —        76 

familiaris 76 

frustror 79 

hodopylax 76 

jubatus 76 

latrans 76,  79 

lupaster 16, 76 

lupus 76,77 

lupus  var.  rufus 

mesomelas 

nubilus 

ochropus • 

pallipes 

variabilis 78 

Capybara 230 

Carcajou 101 

Caribou,  woodland 274 

Carnivora 57 

dentition  of 59 

Carphophaga 23 

Casoryx 257 

Castor 170 

fiber 170 

Castoridffi 169 

fossil  remains  of 169,170 

Cat,  civet 136 

family 63 

dentition  of 63 

domestic 

wild. 

Centetidaa 40 

Cephalotes 24 

Cercoleptes 136,  137,  139 

caudi  volvulus 138 

Cervidse 258,  270 

Cervus  bifurcatus 283 

canadensis 278 

hamatus 283 

(Cariacus)  virginianus  ...      281 

Cetacea 

Cheeronyteris 21,  23,  25 

Chaeropotamus 256 

Chserotherium 256 

Cluetomys 245 

subspinosus 245 

Chalicomys 169,  253 

Cheetah : 64 

Chevrotain 255 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


293 


Chickaree 

Chilonycteris 

Chilotus 

Cfiincha  Americana 

Cfiinche 

Chinga 

Chiroptera 

Chipmunk,  common 

Eocky  mountain 

Chrysochloris 

Civet  

Civet  cat 

Cladonia  rangiferina 

Coati 

Ccelops 

Coffee  cat 

Colobotis 

Colonymys  . . .  ^ 

Common  deer 

Common  ermine  weasel 

Common  fallacies  concerning 

panthers 

Common  pocket  gopher 

Common  rabbit 

Comparison   of    crania   of 

American  hares 

Condylura 

cristata  L 

longicaudata 

macroura 

prasinata 

Conepatus  

mapurito 

suffocans , 

Cooper's  shrew 

Cornicularia 

Corsira  talpoides 

Cougar 

Coyote 

Cricetus  bursarius 

myoides 

Crocidura 

cinerea 


coopen 

Crossopus 

Cryptoproctidas 
Cynaelurus 

guttatus.  .  . 

jubatus 

lanea  

Cynictis 

Cynoidea 

Cynomyonax . . . 
Cynonycteris . . 
Cynopterus  — 
Cyon 


157 
21,  23 

206 
93 
93 
93 

19,23 

160 

162 

40,50 

61 

136 

276 

138 

25 

61 

164 

153 

281 

106 

69 
223 
236 

232 
50 
55 
55 
55 
55 


83 
,48 

276 
44 
67 
79 

224 

178 
43 
45 
48 
43 

60,  62 
64 
64 
64 
64 
62 
60 

106 
24 
24 
75 


Didelphia 17 

Diplomesodon 43 

Dipodidae 217 

Dipodinaa 217 

Dipus 217 

Dolichotis 230 

Domestic  cat 71 

Duplicidentati 154 


Earth  wolf 62 

Elk,  American 278 

Emballonuridas 26 

Enfan  du  diable 93 

Entelodon 256 

Entomophaga 24 

Enhydrinas 85 

Eohyus 257 

Epomophorus 21,  24 

Erethizon 245,  246 

dorsatus 245,  246 

dorsatus  var.  epixanthus      245 

Erinaceidaa 40 

Ermine 106,  10S 

Eucastor 169,  170 

Eurotia  lanata 205 

Evotomys 193 

rutilus  gapperi 194 


Deer,  common 281 

Virginia 281 

Deer  mouse 178 

Dicranoceros  americanus 283 

furcifer 283 


Fcetorius  vulgaris.... 

106 

Felidaa  

60,  63 

Felis  

64 

aurata  

65 

badia  

65 

bengalensis  

65 

caligata  

65 

catus  , 

65,  72 

caudatus  

65 

chaus  

65 

chinensis  

65 

colocollo  

65 

concolor  . 

65,  66,  101 

discolor  

66 

domestica  

71 

eyra  

65 

guigua  
jerdoni  

65 
65 

leo  

65 

macrocelis  

65 

maculata  

73 

maniculata  

72 

manul  

65 

marmorata  

65 

minuta  

65 

neglecta  

65 

onca  

65 

ornata  

65 

pajeros  

65 

pardalis  

65 

pardinoides  

65 

pardis  

65 

planiceps  

65 

294 


BULLETIN    NO.    VII. 


puma 66 

rubiginosa 65 

rufa  73 

rutila 65 

scripta 65 

serval 65 

servalina 65 

shawiana 65 

tigrina 65 

tigris 65 

torquata 65 

tristis 65 

uncia 65 

viverrina 65 

wagati 65 

yaguarondi 65 

Felix  montana 

Feroculus 43 

Ferret 106 

Fiber 211 

zibethicus 211 

Field  mice 192 

Filaria 342 

Fisher 103 

Flying  squirrel 159 

Foussa 60,  62 

Fox  squirrel 158 


IOS 


sibiricus 99 

vulgaris 99 

wolverine 100 

Gymnura 43 


25 
25» 


Gale  ........................ 

Galictis  barbata 

Gaur 

Gayal 

Genet  ........................ 

Geomyida3  ..................  220,  222 

Geomys  ......................      222 

breviceps  ..................      ^* 

bursarius  ...........  221,222,223 

canadensis  ................      224 

castanops  ................      223 

drummondii  ..............       224 

hispidus  .................      223 

mexicanus  ......  ........      222 

oreqonensis  ................       224 

tuza  ......................  222 

Georychidae  ..................      221 

Glossonycteris  ............... 

Glossophaga  ................. 

Glutton  ............  •  ........ 

Gnawers  ...................... 

Gopher,  common  pocket  .....      223 


gray. 


166 


pocket..: 220 

pouched 220 

Gray  gopher 

Gray  squirrel 

Grystes  salmoides 131 

Guinea  pig 230 

Gulo 

arcticus 

borealis 

luscus 

luscus 100 


Habits  of  otters 129 

Harbrothrix 175,  176 

Hares 154,230 

American 240 

fossil 231 

prairie 233 

varying 240 

Harpyia 24 

Helianthus 229 

doronicoides 208 

Helictidinae 84 

Helictis 84 

Heliscomys 153 

Helohyus 257 

Hesperomys 176 

( Vesperimus)  americanus ..  178 

austeris 179 

boylii 179 

campestris 

cognalus 

gambeli 

gracilis .'. .  178 

leucogaster 208 

(Onychomys)  leucogaster... .  208 

leucopus ^ . . .  178 

( Calomys)  leucopus 178 

( Vesperimus)  leucopus 178 

leucopus  sonoriensis 205 

leucopus  sonoriensis 189 

maniculatus 178 

michiganensis 188 

michiganensis 190 

( Vesperimus)  michiganensis  190 

myoides 178 

polionotus 178 

sonoriensis 189 

texanus 178 

Hippopotamidas 256 

Histricomorpha 154 

Hoary  bat 

Holochilus 175 

Honey  badger 84 

Hoofed  quadrupeds 254 

Hunting  leopard 64 

Hysenidse 60,62 

Hyaenodontidaa 60 

Hydrochasrus 230 

Hyomoschus 255 

Hyopotamus 256 

Hypsignathus 

Hypudaaus 

gapperi 

glareolus 194 

hercynicus 194 

leucogaster 208 

nageri 194 

ochrogaster 199 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


295 


nparius 199 

rutilus 194 

rutilus  var.  gapperi 194 

rutilus  var.  glareolus 194 

Hystricidaa     243 

Jlystricinae 244,  245 

Hystrix 245 

af  ricae-australis 245 

cristata 245 

hirsutirqstris 245 

hodgsoni 245 

javanica 245 


Ichneumon . 

Ictidomys 

Ischnoglossa 

Insectivora 

fossil  remains  of. 
Introduction  — 


61 

....       165 
25 
38 
39 
9 
Issyodromys 253 


Jaculinse  .....................  217 

Jaculus  hudsonius  ...........  2]  9 

Jaguar  .......................  67 

Jumping  mouse  .............  218 


Kinkajou  ....................      138 


Lagomyidaa 230 

Lasionycteris 34 

noctivagans 34 

Lasiurus 28 

cinereus 31 

noveboracensis 28 

pruinosus 32 

rufus 29 

Latax  canadensis 129 

Laiaxina  mollis 129 

Lemmings 207 

Leopard,  hunting 64 

Leporidaa 230,  252 

anatomy  of  soft  parts  of . .  233 
osteological   peculiarities 

of 231 

Lepus  americanus 240 

americanus 236,  241 

americanus  var. americanus  240 

americanus  var.  bairdi 241 

americanus  var.  virginianus  241 

americanus  var.wastiingtoni  241 

aquaticus 232 

artemisia 239 

artemisia 237 

artemisiacus 237 

auduboni 232 

auduboni 237 


bachmani  ................      239 

bairdi  ...................       241 

borealis  ...................      240 

californicus  ..............      232 

callotis  ...................      232 

campestris  ..............  232,  233 

campestris  ................      240 

campestris,  bones  of  .....      235 

hudsonius  .................       240 

nanus  ...................  236,  240 

nuttalli  ..................      239 

nuttalli  ...................       236 

palustris  ......  .  ..........       232 

sylvaticus  ......  127,  232,  235,  236 

sylvaticus  var.  arizonas..      238 
sylvaticus  var.  auduboni     239 
sylvaticus  vai  .  auduboni.  .  .      237 
sylvaticus  var.  nuttalli..      238 
sylvaticus  var.  nuttalli  .....       236 

sylvaticus  var.  sylvaticus      236 
timidus  var.  arcticus  .....      232 

townsendi  .................       234 

trowbridgei  ..............      239 

variabilis  ...............  233,  240 

virginianus  .............  233,  241 

washingtoni  ...............      241 

Liatris  graminifolia  ..........      205 

Little  brown  bat  ............        36 

Lonchoglossa  ................        25 

Long  tailed  weasel  ...........      117 

Lutra  californica  .............       129 

canadensis  ...............       129 

hudsonica  .................      129 

lataxina  ..................       129 

vison  .....................       118 

Lutreola  .....................       106 

Lutrinaa  .....................  84,  128 

Lupus  ........................        74 

Ly  caon  pictus  ................        76 

Lyncodon  ....................        60 

patagonicus  ..............        83 

Lyncus  rufus  ..................        73 

Lynx  .........................  64,72 

canadensis..  .............        73 

floridiana  .................        73 

rufus  ....................  73,  248 


60 

24 

40 

38 

14 

62 

104 

104 


Machasrodus 

Macroglossus 

Macroscelidaa 

Macroscelides  typicus 

Mammalia 

Mangue 

Marten 

Maries  americana 

canadensis  ................      103 

Meadow  mouse  ...............      199 

Megaderma  ..................  21,  24 

Megadermata  ................        24 

Megasrops  ....................        24 

Meles  gulo  ....................        99 

taxus  ...................  83,  85 


296 


BULLETIN   NO.  VII. 


Melinse 84, 86 

Mellivora 85 

Mellivorinae 84 

Mephitic  weasel] 93 

Mephitinse 85,  87 

Mephitis 91 

americana 93 

americana  var.  hudsonica..  93 

cliinche 93 

chinga 92 

macroura 94 

mephitica 92 

mephitica  var.  occidentalis.  94 

mesomelas 96 

mespmelas 93 

occidentalis 93 

varians 94 

varians  var.  chinga 93 

Merycopotamus 256 

Mice,  mole 208 

springing 217 

Michigan  mouse 190 

Mink 106,  118 

Minkeries 122 

Minnesota,  mammalian  popu- 
lation of 15 

Missouri  mole-mouse 208 

Mole  mice 208 

Mole-mouse  Missouri 208 

Moles 49,  38 

dentition  of 39 

star-nosed. 55 

Monfette  d'amerique 93 

Monodelphia 17 

Monophyllus 25 

Moose  deer 270 

Mountain  buffalo 261 

Mouse,  deer 178 

field 192 

jumping 218 

meadow ..  199 

Michigan 190 

Sonora 189 

white-footed 178 

Muridai 174,  221,  252 

Murinse 175 

Musculus  leucopus 178 

Muskrat 211 

Musquash 216 

Mus  agrarius 178 

agrarius  var.  americanus . .  178 

bairdii 190 

bursarius 224 

glareolus 194 

leucopus 178,  189 

michiganensis 190 

missouriensis 208 

noveboracensis 178 

rutilus 193 

rutilus 194 

saccatus 224 

sylvaticus 178 

sylvaticus  var.  noveboracen- 
sis..                             178 


Mustela  — 102 

americana 102,  104 

canadensis 103,  118 

cicognani 108 

erminia 108 

foina 102 

fusca 108 

gale...: 106 

godmani 103 

gulo 99 

huro 104 

leucopus 104 

lutreocephala 118 

lutreola 118 

martes 102 

martes 104 

melanorhyncha 103 

minx 118 

nigra 103 

nivalis 106 

pennanti 102,  103 

pusilla 106 

vison 118 

vulgaris 106 

vulpina 104 

winingus 118 

zibellina 102 

zibellina  var.  americana. . .  104 

Mustelidas 60,  83 

Mustelinas 84 

Mydaus  telagon 83,  85,  88 

Myogale 43 

Myogalidae 40 

Myoides 207 

(Synaptomys)  cooperi 207 

Myomorpha 154 

Myonomes 198,  206 

pratensis  199 

Myoxus 153,  252 

Mysops 153 

Mysorex 43 

3ST 

Nasua 136,  139 

rufa 138 

Neosorex  palustris  49 

iSfeotoma 175 

Nuphar 214 

Nycterentes  procyonoides 76 

viverrinus 76 

Nycteris 24 

Nycticejus 27 

crepuscularis , 

humeralis 27 

lasiurus 29 

noveboracensis 

pruinosus 

varius 29 


Ochetodon 175 

Onychomys 175,  176,  208 

leucogaster 205, 208 


MAMMALS   OF  MINNESOTA. 


297 


leucogaster  var.  torridus.      209 
leucogaster  var.  pallidus.      210 

Oryzomys 175, 176 

Osteological    peculiarities  of 

Leporidse 231 

Otocyon..! 75 

megalotis 76 

Otospermophilus 164 

Otter 85,  128 

sea 85 

habits  of 129 

Oxyrnicterus 175,  176 


Pachydermata.. 254 

Pachyura 43 

Palasocastor 170 

Palaaolagus  . . 231 

Panda 137 

Panthers,  common    fallacies 

concerning 69 

Paradoxurus 61 

Parameryx . .  258 

Paramys 153,  252 

Pardoxodon 43 

Peccary 255 

Pedetinas 217 

Perchserus 257 

Pedomys 206 

austerus 206 

curtatus  206 

Pekan 103 

Phyllorhina 21,25 

Phyllonycteris 25 

Phyllostoma 25 

Phyllostomata 24 

Phyllostomidse 25,  26 

Pikas 154,  230 

Pisces 14 

Pitymys : . . .  206 

Platycercomys 217 

Platygonus 257 

Plesiarctomys 153 

Polecat  93 

Polydactyla 258 

Porcupine 244 

Canada 246 

Porcus 256 

Prairie  hare 233 

Prionodon  gracilis 61 

Prochilus  labiatus 136 

Procyon 136, 1 38,  139 

cancrivorous 139 

hernandezii 139 

lotor 139 

Proteles 62 

Pseudostoma  bursarius 224 

Ptenochirus 24 

Pterocyon 24 

Pteromys 154 

Pteropodidse 23,  24,  26 

Pteropus 21,  24 

Puma 66 


Putorius  ....................  102,  108 

ayilis  ....................      108 

cicognani  ................  106,  108 

erminea  ................  107,  108 

Jcanei  .........    ..........      108 

longicaudata  ...........  108,  117 

lutreola  ..................      118 

noveboracensis  ............      108 

pusillus  ...................       106 

richardsoni  ...............       103 

vison  ....................      118 

vulgarus  ..............    106,107 

Q 

Quincajou  ...................      101 

Quinsque  ....................        93 


Rabbit  common  .............  236 

white  ....................  240 

Raccoon  ................  135,  138,  139 

Rangifer  tarandus  ..........  274 

Ratelus  capensis  .............  83,  88 

Red  bat  ......................  28 

Reindeer  American  ..........  274 

Reithrodon  ...................  175 

Reptilia  .....................  14 

Reynard  .....................  81 

Rhinaster  cristatus  ............  55 

longicaudata  ..............  55 

mammas  .................  55 

Rhinolophidae  .............  23,  24,  26 

Rhinolophus  .................  25 

Rhinopoma  ..................  24 

Rocky  mountain  chipmunk  .  .  162 

Rodentia  ....................  151 

concluding    remarks    on 

distribution  of  ........  252 

dentition  of  ..............  152 

fossil  remains  of  .........  153 

Ruminantia  ................  258 


Sable,  American 104 

Saccomyidse 221, 222 

Saccophorus  bursarius  albus. . .      224 

Sagittaria 247 

Scalops 50,  51 

ceneus 53 

aquaticus 51,52 

aquaticus 54 

aquaticus  var.argentatus       54 

argentatus 54 

canadensis 53 

latimanus 53 

pennsylvanica 53 

Scaphanus 50,55 

breweri 55 

townsendi 55 

Sciuravus 153,252 

Sciuridae 154,252 


298 


BULLETIN   NO.    VII. 


Sciuromorpha 154 

Sciuropterus 158 

volucella  154,159 

Sciurus 155,252 

alberti 156 

carolinensis 156 

carolinensis  var.  leucotis  156,157 
carolinensis  var.yucatanensis!56 

fossor 156 

hudsonius 155,157 

hudsonius  var.  douglassi.  156 
hudsonius  var.  fremonti.  155 
hudsonius  var.  richardsoni  156 

niger 156,158 

niger  var.  cinereus 156 

niger  var.  ludovicianus.  .156,158 

niger  var.  niger 156 

tridecemlineatus 165 

Scotophilus 

carolinensis 33 

fuscus 33 

noctivayans 35 

pruinosus 31 

Short  tailed  shrew 44 

Shrews 38 

Cooper's 

short  tailed 44 

Sigmodon 175 

Silver  haired  bat 

Simplicidentati 154 

Skunk 85,87 

common 92 

dentition  of 91 

Solenodon 43 

Sonora  mouse 189 

Sorex 43 

oxquaticus 51 

brevicaudata 44 

cinereus 45 

copperi 48 

cristatus 55 

dekayi 45 

haydeni 48 

lesueri 48 

parvus 45 

platyrhinus 48 

radiatus 55 

talpoides 44 

Soricida  cooperi 41 

Soricidse 40,43 

Soriculus- 43 

Spermophilus 163 

franklini 165,166 

hoodi 165 

richardsoni 165 

tridecemlineatus 165 

tridecem.  var.  tridecemlin- 
eatus       165 

Sphingurus 245 

bicolor 245 

melanurus 245 

novse-hispaniaa 245 

pallidus 245 

villosus 243,245 


Spilogale  ..................... 

Springing  mice  ............... 

Squirrel  ...................... 

black  ..................... 

flying  .................... 

fox  ....................  ... 

gray  ...................... 

Star-nosed  mole  .............. 

Steneoflber  ..............  169,170, 

Stoat  ......................... 

Subursida?  ................... 

Subursinas  .................... 

Sun  bear  .................... 

Suricate  ...................... 

Sus  .......................... 

Swine  ..,  .................... 

fossil  remains  of  ......... 

Sylvilagus  artemisia  ........... 

bachmani  ................. 


Sy  naptomyfe  .................. 

cooperi  .................. 

Synetheres  ................... 

dubia  ..................... 

fossilis  .......  ............ 

magna  ................... 

platycentrotus  ........... 

prehensilis  .............. 

Synetherinas  ................  244, 

Synopsis  of  North  American 
sciuri  .................. 


92 
217 
154 
157 
159 
158 
157 

55 
253 
109 

60 
136 
136 

62 
256 
256 
256 
237 
236 
236 
207 
207 
245 
245 
245 
215 
245 
245 
245 

155 


Talpa 

cenea 

aquatica 

europea  flavescens 

fusca 

latimanus 

longicaudata 

pennantii 

purpurascens • 

radiata 

rubra , — 

virginiana 

virginianits  niger 

vulgaris  var.  B 

Talpidae 

Tamias 

asiaticus — 

asiaticus  var.quadrivitta- 
tus • 

asiaticus  var.  borealis... 

lysteri. 

macrorhabdotes 

striatus 

striatus  lysteri.  

Taphyzous  rufus 

Taxidea 

americana 

berlandieri 

Taxus  gulo 

Taxymys 

Thomomys 


50 
52 
52 
51 
52 
52 
55 
52 
52 
55 
52 
52 
52 
52 

40,49 
159 
162 

162 

162 
113 
160 
160 
160 
29 

85,86 

86 

86 

99 

153 

222 


MAMMALS   OF   MINNESOTA. 


299 


Tinohyus  ....................  257 

Tillomys  .....................  153 

Tlapa  towsendii  ...............  52 

Tragulidae  ....................  257 

Trogonotherium  .............  169,  170 

Tupaiida^  ....................  40 

Twilight  bat  .................  27 

Tyger  ........................  68 


Urocyon  .....................        81 

cinero-argentatus  .  .  ......        82 

Urotrichus  ...................        50 

Ursida3  ..................  60,  135,  136 

Ursina3  .......................       136 

Ursus  .......................  136,145 

americanus  ..............      146 

arctos  ..................  145,  147 

gulo  ......................        99 

lotor  .....................       139 

luscus  .....................        99 

marinus  ..................      135 

ornatus  ..................      145 

Usnea  .......................      276 


Vainpyrus  .........  ..........  25 

Varying  hare  ................  240 

Vesperimus  .................  175,  176 

leucopus.  ...............  178,  190 

michiganensis  ...........  190 

sonoriensis  .............  189,390 

Vespertilio  ...................  36 

arcuatus  .................  33 

auduboni  .................  34 

blossevilii  .................  29 

bonariensis  ................  29 

californicus  ...............  36 

caroli  .....................  "33,  36 

cinereus  ...................  31 

creeks  .........   ...........  27 

crepuscularis  ..............  27 

domesticus  ................  36 

evotis  ......  ...............  36 

fuscits  .................... 

gryphus.  .  ................. 

lasiurus  ..................  29 

ludfugus  ..................  36 

monachus  .................  29 

noctivagans  .......  ........  34 

(  Vesperides)  noctivagans.  .  .  35 

noveboracensis  ............  28 

phaiops  ...................  33 

pruinosus  .................  31 

pulverulentus  ..............  35 

rillosissimus  ..............  29 

rubellus  ..................  29 

subulatus  ................ 

lesselatiis  ................ 

ursinus  ...................  33 

VespertilionidiB  ..............  26 


Vesperus  .....................  33 

Virginiadeer  ................  281 

Vison  lutreola  ................  118 

Viverra  canadensis  ............  103 

mephitica  .....  .  .  ..........  92 

piscator.  .  .  ................  103 

60,  61,  136 

Vulpes  .......................  74,  80 

argentatus  ...............  81 

azarae  ....................  76 

corsac  ....................  76 

decussatus  ..............  81 

lagopus  ..................  76 

macrus  ..................  80 

magellanicus  ........  ....  76 

velox  .....................  76,  80 

virginianus  ...............  76 

virginianus  .............  ...  82 

vulgaris  ..................  80 

vulpes  ...................  76 

zerda  -----  ................  76 


Weasel  .......................  84,106 

common  .................  107 

common  ermine  ..........  106 

ermine  ...................  107 

lesser  ....................  106 

long-tailed  ............  ...  117 

white  .........  ..........  107,  108 

White-footed  mouse  ..........  178 

White  rabbit  ................  240 

Wild  cat  .....................  73 

Wolf,  black  ..........  .....  ....  78 

brindled  .  .  ...............  78 

dusky.-  ................... 

fossil  ancestors  of  ........  16 

gray  ..................... 

grizzled  ..................  78 

prairie  ..................  79 

red  .......................  78 

white  ....................  77 

Wolverine  ............  ......  99 

Wood  buffalo  ...............  261 

Woodchuck  ..................  168 

Woodland  caribou  ...........  274 


Xerus. 


Yak. 


154 


258 


Zapodinse 217,218 

Zapus 218 

hudsonius 154,218 

Zibet ,. 61 

Zorilla 84 

Zorillinae 84 


Index  of  Authorities  Cited  and  Quoted. 


Page. 
Allen,  J.  A.,  Synopsis  of  ^North 

American  Sciuri 155 

quoted 1164,  167 

Allen,  J.  A 

259,  260,  261,  77.  114,  242,  45 

quoted...  105,  146,  237,  265,  268,  269 

Alston,  quoted 217 

Audubon,  quoted,   111,114,115,  131 

133,    28 

Audubon  and  Bachman,  quoted  125 

Bailey 205 

Baird,  Prof.  S.  F. .  .242,  96,  146,  232 

quoted 135,  209 

Bartlett 28 

Bell,  quoted 107,  132,  134 

cited 130 

Bennett,  C  W 146 

Bennett,  George 132 

Blainville 146 

Bottineau,  Pierre 265 

Brandt : 259 

Butler 207 

Canfleld,  Dr.  C.  A 28,    28 

Carver 249 

quoted 68,  73,  98,  101,  216 

Catlin 264 

Caton,  Judge,  J.  D. ,  28,2,279,280    28 

Gooke,  Prof.  W.  W 203,  280 

Coues,  Dr.  Elliott,  cited,  80,  96,  109 

117,  129,  206,  209 

quoted,  86,  88,  89,  92.  100,  108,  117 
Habits  of  otters,  129;  tabu- 
lar statement  of  MurinaB  175 
Dentition  of    Yesperimus, 
177,  179, 192,  193,  194,  195, 

201,  207,  224 

Curtis,  Prof 28 

Davis,  Wm  T.,  quoted  on  ves- 
per mice 188 

Dawson,  Dr.  Geo  M 265 

Dodge,  Col.,  quoted 262,  264 

Ely,  Dr 170 

Garrison,  E.  O 207 

Geikie,  quoted 174 

Gibson,  Mr  ,  quoted 134 

Gill,  Dr.,  synopsis  of  sub-fami- 
lies of  Mustelidae 84 

Godman,  quoted 130 

Gray,  Dr 146 

Hallock,  Charles,  quoted 120 

Herrick,  C.  L.,  quoted 212,  227 

Herrick,  C.  Judson, quoted. 212,  227 
Hiskey,  W.  O.,  quoted  on  ves- 
per mice 187 


Howell,  M.  A.,  Jr.,  quoted 118 

Hoy 191 

Jillson,  Mr,  quoted 168 

Kennicott 180,  191 

Leidy,  Jos 259 

Lilljeborg 259 

Linceum,  G.,  habits  of  species 

of  Sorex 42 

Lockwood,  Dr.  Samuel,  quoted 

on  vesper  mice 181 

McChesney,  Dr.  C.  E 225 

MacGillivray,  Wm.,  quoted ....  109 
Merriam,  Dr.  C.  H.,  some  com- 
mon fallacies  concerning  pan- 
thers       69 

quoted,  97,  104,  116,  180,  197, 

249,160,204,206,  211 

Middendorff 146 

Mivart,  St.  George 65,    71 

Morgan,  Capt.,  Beaver  and  His 

Works 170 

Nolan,  James 264 

Owen 224 

Parker.  Dr.  J.  S.,  quoted 89 

Pope.  ' 269 

Quick 207 

Resseque,  H.,  quoted  on  minke- 

ries 122 

Richardson,  Sir  John 

quoted 103,  114,  115,  130 

Roberts,  Dr.  T.  S.,  quoted,  116, 

126,  162 

Ruetimeyer 259 

Ryall,  Philip,  Esq 181 

Sayles,  Ira,  quoted 160 

Schmidt 259 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  Prof 260 

Shaw 223 

Slade,  quoted 220 

Tenney,    Sanborn,    quoted   on 

Zapus 219 

Thoreau,  quoted 216 

Upham,  Warren,  quoted,  78,147, 

162,264,  265 

Vogt,  Carl,  quoted.. 38,  137,  145,  259 
Ward,  Chas.  C.,  habits  of  bears  149 
Wartield,  Corporal  Lot,  quoted  104 

Weber,  Mr.,  quoted 54 

Webster,  Prof.  C.  L.,  quoted. . .  127 

Whitman,  C.  L.,  quoted 95 

Wilcox,  John  D . . . ......... 78 


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